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Biology > Exam 1-2 Review > Flashcards

Exam 1-2 Review Flashcards

1
Q

Polysaccharides form when _____ catalyze the formation of _____ _____ between monosaccharides that are in the alpha or beta form.

A

Enzymes, glycosidic linkages

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2
Q

Most polysaccharides are long chains of _____, but some branch extensively. Among linear forms, it is common for adjacent strands to be connected by _____ _____ or other types of linkages.

A

Residues, hydrogen bonding

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3
Q

Simple sugars differ from each other in three respects:

A

The location of their carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms present, and the spatial arrangement of their atoms (particularly the relative positions of hydroxyl groups).

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4
Q

Carbohydrates provide _____ _____ or synthesis of more complex compounds

A

Raw materials

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5
Q

What polysaccharides form cell walls and give structural strength?

A

Cellulose, Chitin, and Peptidoglycan.

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6
Q

_____ and _____ project from cell surfaces to provide molecular badges that identify the cell’s type or species.

A

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

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7
Q

_____ and _____ store sugars for layer use in reactions that produce ATP. Sugars contain large amounts of potential energy in their ___-___ and ___-___ bonds.

A

Starch and glycogen. C-H and C-C bonds.

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8
Q

Organic compounds that have a carbon group and several hydroxyl groups:

A

Monosaccharides

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9
Q

Monosaccharides May form _____ structures in solution that can differ from one another in the orientation of a _____ group, even among molecules of the same monosaccharide.

A

Ring, hydroxyl

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10
Q

Monosaccharides can be _____ bonded together via _____ _____, which join hydroxyl groups in adjacent molecules.

A

Covalently, glycosidic linkages

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11
Q

_____ do not always form a single uniform backbone structure. The numerous _____ found in each monosaccharide allow glycosidic linkages to form at different sites and new strands to _____ from existing chains.

A

Polysaccharides, hydroxyls, branch

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12
Q

The types of _____ involved and the geometries of the glycosidic linkages between _____ distinguish different polysaccharides from one another.

A

Monomers, monomers

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13
Q

Cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan are polysaccharides that function in _____. They are made up of _____ _____ joined by ___-1,4 glycosidic linkages. When individual molecules of these polysaccharides align side by side, bonds form between them, resulting in strong, flexible fibers or sheets that resist _____.

A

Support, monosaccharide monomers, beta, hydrolysis

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14
Q

Both _____ and _____ are polysaccharides that function as energy storage molecules.

A

Starch and glycogen

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15
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Simple sugars; monomers of carbohydrates

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16
Q

What is more common: alpha glucose or beta glucose? Why?

A

Beta; more stable

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17
Q

_____ _____ end in -Ose or -Oses

A

Simple sugars

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18
Q

_____ _____ end in -saccharides

A

Complex carbohydrates

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19
Q

It is rare for sugars of _____ or more carbons to exist in linear chains. Most form rings.

A

5

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20
Q

When monosaccharides polymerize due to condensation reactions between hydroxyl groups, they lead to covalent bonds called _____ _____. They also hold monomers together.

A

Glycosidic linkages

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21
Q

Each cell in the body has _____ on its surface to help identify it as a part of the body.

A

Carbohydrates

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22
Q

Polar molecules with strong bonds have _____ potential energy than non polar molecules with equal electron sharing.

A

Lower

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23
Q

A _____ refers to a single unit that makes up a polymer, such as an amino acid in a polypeptide or protein.

A

Residue

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23
Q

Chemical reactions must _____ total entropy of the universe.

A

Increase

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23
Q

Endergonic vs. Exergonic

A

Endergonic is the input of energy/ low to high potential energy. Exergonic is the release of energy/ high to low energy

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24
Q

What are the variable structures of a nucleotide?

A

The sugars; ribo or deoxy

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25
Q

A phospholipid has a hydro_____ head and hydro_____ tails. Phospholipids also contain a _____ backbone and are made of ___ fatty acids.

A

Philic, phobic, glycerol, two.

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26
Q

What organelle or structure is primarily involved in the synthesis of oils, phospholipids, and steroids?

A

The smooth ER

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27
Q

Which structure is the site of the synthesis of proteins that may be exported from the cell?

A

Rough ER

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28
Q

Isoprenoids:

A

Long, branched, hydrocarbon chains

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29
Q

Saturated carbons contain carbon carbon _____ bonds and are _____ at room temp. Unsaturated carbons contain carbon carbon _____ bonds and are _____ at room temp.

A

Single, solid. Double, liquid.

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30
Q

Name the 3 types of lipids:

A

Fats, steroids, and phospholipids.

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31
Q

Cholesterol is important in building the structure of _____ _____.

A

Cell membranes

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32
Q

A fat molecule consists of two main components: _____ and _____ _____.

A

Glycerol and fatty acids.

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33
Q

Steroids have a distinctive _____ _____ structure that is (polar/non-polar.) List three examples.

A

Four ring (3 hexagons attaches to a pentagon), non-polar, ex: cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen.

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34
Q

What are lipid micelles? What do they tend to form?

A

Created when hydrophilic heads of a set of lipids face water, making a circle, to create hydrogen bonds while the hydrophobic tails interact with one another in the interior area. They form fatty acids

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35
Q

What is a lipid bilayer? What does it tend to form?

A

Lipid molecules align in paired sheets with the hydrophobic tails interacting with each other within the interior of the sheet, while the hydrophilic heads interact with water and form hydrogen bonds. Forms phospholipids.

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36
Q

If molecules are charged, the permeability of a lipid bilayer _____. Small ions (can/cannot) pass through.

A

Decreases. Cannot

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37
Q

Adding cholesterol molecules to membranes _____ permeability. Therefore, membranes lacking cholesterol are _____ permeable.

A

Reduces, more.

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38
Q

Diffusion:

A

Net movement of ions or molecules in solution from high concentration to low concentration.

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39
Q

Osmosis:

A

Diffusion of water across selective permeable membrane from concentrations of high to low.

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40
Q

List the three classes of proteins that affect membrane permeability:

A

Channel proteins, carrier proteins, and pump proteins.

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41
Q

What two proteins participate in passive transport to facilitate diffusion from areas of high to low concentration? What’s the difference between the two? What protein participates in active transport and can move a substance against the concentration gradient?

A

Channel and carrier. Carriers change shape to facilitate diffusion and the process is much slower than with a channel protein. Pump.

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42
Q

Hyperosmotic vs. hypoosmotic

A

Hyper: Solution with the higher concentration of solute. Hypo: solution with the lesser concentration of solute.

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43
Q

When redox rxns occur, electrons change _____. These rxns usually involve a change in _____ _____.

A

Position, potential energy

44
Q

When substrates are phosphorylated by ATP they gain _____ _____.

A

Potential energy

45
Q

Reactions with negative delta G are _____ and (do/do not) occur spontaneously.

A

Exergonic, do

46
Q

Redox reactions transfer energy by coupling (exergonic/endergonic) oxidation reactions and (ex/end) reduction reactions.

A

Exergonic, endergonic

47
Q

The hydrolysis of ATP is an (ex/end-ergonic) reaction and is used to drive a variety of _____ processes.

A

Exergonic, cellular

48
Q

Reactions with a positive delta G are _____ and (do/do not) occur without input of energy.

A

Endergonic, Do not

49
Q

Enzymes have active sites that bring substrates together and may change _____ to stabilize the _____ state.

A

Shape, transition

50
Q

Activation energy is:

A

The amount of kinetic energy requires to reach the transition state of a reaction

51
Q

Enzymes speed up a reaction by lowering _____ _____, often with the help of _____, _____, or _____ groups.

A

Activation energy. Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic

52
Q

A pathway may be regulated by controlling the activity of one enzyme by _____ _____, often the first in the series of reactions.

A

Feedback inhibition

53
Q

Examples of kinetic energy:

A

Thermal, sound, light, radiation

54
Q

Examples of potential energy:

A

Gravitational, electrical, chemical gradients, chemical bonds

55
Q

Weaker bonds have _____ potential energy than stronger bonds

A

Higher

56
Q

First law of thermodynamics:

A

Energy is conserved, not created or destroyed; it is transferred or transformed

57
Q

Enthalpy:

A

Total energy in a molecule which includes potential energy plus the effect of the molecule on pressure and volume of its surrounding

58
Q

Exothermic reactions have a (-/+) delta H, while endothermic reactions have a (-/+) delta H.

A

Negative, positive,

59
Q

Second law of thermodynamics:

A

Total entropy always increases in a system that includes the surroundings as well as the products of the reaction.

60
Q

Standard free energy change equation:

A

delta G (Gibbs free energy) = delta H - TdeltaS

Temp in kelvins

61
Q

Chemical reactions are spontaneous when delta G is (less/more) than 0. They (release/use) energy.

A

Less than, release

62
Q

Delta G is ____ when a reaction is at equilibrium.

A

0

63
Q

(Ex/end-ergonic) reactions are not spontaneous and need energy to proceed.

A

Endergonic

64
Q

Chemical reaction speed up with increased _____ or _____.

A

Temperature, concentration

65
Q

The more (stable/unstable) the transition state, the higher the activation energy

A

Unstable

66
Q

Catabolic reaction:

A

Any set of chem reactions that break down large complex molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process

67
Q

Anabolic pathways:

A

Any set of chemical reactions that synthesize large molecules from smaller ones. Requires an input of energy

68
Q

In eukaryotes, cells produce glucose (cellular respiration) via four processes. List them in order:

A

Glycolysis, pyruvate processing, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

69
Q

During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to _____ in the _____.

A

Pyruvate, cytosol

70
Q

During pyruvate processing, pyruvate is oxidized to _____ in the _____.

A

Acetyl CoA, mitochondrial matrix

71
Q

In the citric acid cycle, the acetylene from acetyl CoA is oxidized to _____ in the _____.

A

Carbon dioxide, mitochondrial matrix

72
Q

When does the cell produce ATP?

A

Only when needed

73
Q

As electrons NADH and FADH2 move through the ETC, _____ are pumped into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria

A

Protons

74
Q

The _____ _____ across the inner mitochondrial membrane drives protons through ATP synthase, resulting in the production of ATP from ADP

A

Electrochemical gradient

75
Q

Cellular respiration is based on redox reactions that oxidize a compound with _____ potential energy and produce molecules with _____ potential energy.

A

High, low

77
Q

Fermentation most often occurs in the absence of an _____ _____ at the end of an ETC. it consists of reactions that oxidize _____ to regenerate the _____+ requires for glycolysis.

A

Electron acceptor, NADH, NAD+

77
Q

The goycolytic pathway is a 10 step reaction sequence in which glucose is broken down two molecules of _____. This takes place in the _____ to produce _____ and _____.

A

Pyruvate, cytosol, ATP, and NADH

78
Q

Glycolysis slows when _____ bonds to a regulatory site in _____.

A

ATP, phosphofructokinase

79
Q

What three processes of cellular respiration are central to the metabolism of most cells?

A

Glycolysis, pyruvate processing, and the citric acid cycle.

80
Q

Pyruvate processing is a series of reactions that convert pyruvate to _____ in the ______ in eukaryotes and in the _____ of prokaryotes.

A

Acetyl CoA, mitochondrial matrix, cytosol

81
Q

What is produced (not converted) through pyruvate processing?

A

NADH and CO2

82
Q

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is inhibited when it is _____ by ATP. It _____ in the presence of reactants and _____ in the presence of products.

A

Phosphorylated, speeds up, slows down

83
Q

The glycolytic pathway is a _____ step reaction, while the citric acid cycle is a _____ step reaction.

A

10, 8

84
Q

The citric acid cycle is a reaction cycle in the _____ of eukaryotes and _____ in prokaryotes.

A

Mitochondrial matrix, cytosol

85
Q

The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl CoA and produces _____, _____, and _____/_____. By the end of the citric acid cycle, all the carbons from glucose are completely oxidized to _____.

A

FADH2, NADH, and ATP. CO2

86
Q

Certain enzymes in the citric acid cycle are inhibited when _____ or _____ binds to them.

A

NADH, ATP

87
Q

Where does the electron transport chain reside? What does it consist of?

A

The inner membrane of the mitochondria - a series of electron acceptors that vary in redox potential

88
Q

The electron transport chain begins with the oxidation of _____ and _____ and ends with the reduction of a terminal electron acceptor like _____.

A

NADH, FASH2, O2

89
Q

The energy released from redox reactions in the electron transport chain is used to transport _____ across the _____ _____ membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient.

A

Protons, inner mitochondrial

90
Q

ATP production is coupled to the ETC by _____ _____. The potential energy stored in the proton gradient is used to spin components of the ATP syntheses to produce _____.

A

Oxidative phosphorylation, ATP

91
Q

What process is responsible for most of the ATP made by cellular respiration?

A

Electron transport chain

92
Q

Fermentation begins by reducing _____ to regenerate _____ from _____.

A

Pyruvate, NAD+, NADH

93
Q

Depending on the molecule that acts as the electron acceptor, fermentation pathways produce _____, _____ or other reduced organic compounds as a by-product.

A

Lactate, ethanol

94
Q

Where and when does fermentation occur?

A

In the cytosol when an electron transport chain is not present or inactive due to an insufficient amount of the final electron acceptor.

95
Q

ATP is produced using chemical energy from _____.

A

Glucose

96
Q

Cellular respiration results in the complete oxidation of _____ into _____ and _____.

A

Glucose, CO2, water

97
Q

Can fermentation fully oxidize glucose?

A

No

98
Q

Catabolic pathways _____ ATP, and anabolic pathways _____ ATP.

A

Produce, use

99
Q

When a chlorophyll molecule in the antenna complex of a chloroplast membrane absorbs red or blue light, one of its electrons is promoted to a _____-energy state.

A

High

100
Q

In the antenna complex, excited electrons transmit energy between chlorophyll molecules by _____ energy transfer from _____ to _____ levels toward the reaction center.

A

Resonance, higher, lower

101
Q

When energy is transferred to a chlorophyll molecule in the reaction center, the excited electron is transferred to an _____ _____. In this way, light energy is transformed into _____ _____.

A

Electron acceptor, chemical energy

102
Q

Photosystems II contributes _____ _____ to an electron transport train that pumps protons, creating a _____ _____ force that drives ATP synthase.

A

Excited electrons, proton-motive

103
Q

Photosystem I uses excited electrons to make _____ and can produce additional ATP by building a proton-motive force via _____ _____ _____.

A

NADP, cyclic electron flow

104
Q

Reactions that produce sugar from carbon dioxide are not triggered directly by light. Instead, they depend on the _____ and _____ produces by light capturing reactions.

A

ATP and NADPH

105
Q

What are the three phases of the Calvin cycle?

A

Fixation phase, reduction phase, and regeneration phase.

106
Q

The fixation phase of the Calvin cycle is:

A

CO2 fixation/ synthesis of 3PGA

107
Q

The reduction phase of the Calvin cycle is:

A

Carbon reduction/ synthesis of G3P

108
Q

The regeneration phase of the Calvin cycle is:

A

The regeneration of RuBP

Biology (4 decks)

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