Exam 1 Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Dualism
A
- the soul, mind, or spirit, is DISTINCT from the body or brain
- proposed by Rene Descartes
- ***“I think, therefore I am”
2
Q
Reductionism
A
- Only the body and the brain control thoughts and actions
- Championed by Thomas Hobbes
- Consciousness is a by-product of the brain’s activity
- ***there is no soul or “mind”
3
Q
What are the main contributions of evolutionary theory to biopsychology?
A
- Human brains are no qualitatively different from animals
- by studying the brain functions and behaviors of animals we can better understand human behavior
- many genes are shared between organisms
4
Q
Parts of a neuron
A
- Dendrites
- Soma
- Axon
- Action potential
- Myelin
- Terminal Buttons
5
Q
Dendrites
A
receives messages from other neurons
6
Q
Soma
A
Organizes messages from dendrites and “decides” whether neuron should convey messages to other neurons
7
Q
Axons
A
carries electrical messages known as action potentials to terminal buttons
8
Q
Action potential
A
electrical messages
9
Q
Myelin
A
insulates axons
10
Q
Terminal Button
A
releases neurotransmitters that tell other neurons or muscles what to do
11
Q
Glial cells
A
cells in the nervous systems that protect and care for neurons
- there to support neurons
- can be replaced
- typical source of cancerous brain tumors
12
Q
Four types of glial cells
A
- Schwann cell
- Oligodendrocyte
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
13
Q
Schwann Cell
A
Insulates axons in PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
14
Q
Oligodendrocyte
A
Insulates neurons in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
15
Q
Astrocytes
A
Brings nutrients to brain neurons
- Removes waste
- Insulates synapses
16
Q
Microglia
A
-Assist in healing from brain injury
17
Q
What is the blood-brain barrier?
A
- Walls of blood vessels in brain lack pores between cells
- Restricts entry of toxic substances into the brain
- Also restricts entry to potential therapeutic drugs into the brain
18
Q
Cellular organelle
A
- Mitochondria
- Golgi Apparatus
- Cytoplasm
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Microtubules
- Lysosomes
- Ribosomes
19
Q
Mitochondria
A
Provides cell with energy
-Around terminal buttons
20
Q
Golgi Apparatus
A
Packages proteins to protect them within cells
- Vesicles (packages)
- Provides structure to cells
21
Q
Cytoplasm
A
Fluid within the cell
-Contains enzymes that can activate or break down other proteins
22
Q
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
A
Involved in the synthesis and transport of new proteins
-Contains ribosomes
23
Q
Ribosomes
A
small organelles that are responsible for synthesizing new proteins
24
Q
Microtubules
A
literally tubes within cells that transport proteins or packages of proteins over long distances (in neurons they are usually found in the axons)
25
Lysosomes
basically the "trashcan" of the cell
| -involved in the removal of waste from the cell
26
What is a chromosome composed of?
Chromosomes are composed of genes
- Entire set of chromosomes is known as your genome
- Humans have approximately 23,000 genes
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
- --------23rd pair is made up of X and Y chromosome
* *****Females have X-X
* *****Males have X-Y
* ********Genes are composed of DNA******
27
What is DNA?
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
It is composed of four nucleic acids:
*Cytosine-Guanine
*Adenine-Thymine
****The C-G are always paired together as a rung
****The A-T are always paired together as a rung
28
Gene Transcription
When a gene needs to be turned into a protein, the double helix unwinds
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How is DNA transcribed into RNA?
Gene Transcription
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Steps of gene transcription of when DNA is transcribed into RNA
1) Inside a cell, a chemical called RNA polymerase goes into the cell nucleus
2) The RNA polymerase finds the gene for insulin and separates the DNA strands
3) The RNA polymerase moves along the gene, making a "messenger" molecule that contains a copy of the gene code for making insulin
* **A copy of the DNA sequence of the gene is made into RNA
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RNA (ribonucleic acid)
a copy of the DNA sequence of a gene
- used as a blueprint for a protein
- Composed of ribonucleic acids:
- Adenine
- Uridine
- Cytosine
- Guanine
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How is RNA is translated into a protein?
The RNA is edited into messenger RNA (mRNA) and sent to the ribosome
- The ribosome translates the mRNA three nucleic acids at a time
* ***These groups of three nucleic acids are known as codons or triplets
- Individual codons specify what individual amino acids should be used to make the proteins
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mRNA (messenger RNA)
comes from the original strand of RNA
34
What is a protein?
A large strand of amino acids that can provide structure to a cell or perform functions for the cell by acting as enzymes
*Enzymes control chemical reactions
35
Different types of mutations
- Alterations in the DNA sequence of a gene
- Changes in the control of gene expression
- Alternative Splicing
- Post-Translational Processing
- Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) or point mutation
- Insertions of DNA into normal sequences
- Deletions of DNA into normal sequences
36
Huntington's Disease
It is a progressive neuro-generative disorder due to mutation in single gene that leads to problems with thinking, speaking, and swallowing
- Gene on chromosome 4 codes for a protein known as Huntington
* The code contains a DNA sequence, C-A-G, that normally repeats 10-25 times at the end of the gene
* In HD patients, the C-A-G sequence is repeated 40 or more times
* ****The problem with the gene sequence is that it it too long***
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What kind of mutation occurs in Huntington's disease?
Mutation
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What are alleles?
Every person has two copies of each gene (except on the sex chromosome)
- Each copy is known as an allele
- Common changes in the DNA sequence of a gene are known as alleles
* Dominant Allele
* Recessive Allele
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Dominant Allele (gene)
If one copy of this form of the gene is present then it gets expressed
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Recessive Allele (gene)
Will only get expressed if both copies of the gene are present
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What are the two main parts of a gene?
The strand of DNA that makes of a gene can be divided into a regulatory region and a coding region
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Regulatory Region
contains part of the gene that controls its expression
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Coding Region
also known as an axon; it contains the part of the gene that is transcribed into RNA
44
What is a transcription factor?
Proteins that bind to regulatory regions and alter the rate of gene expression
Also known as a binding proteins
*****FOXP2****
45
How do mutations in FOXP2 affect behavior?
Mutations in FOXP2 have been associated with language deficits
* KE family
- Some members of the KE family have profound deficits in learning, productions of complex sequences of mouth movements, including speech (verbal dyspraxia), as well as more language problems that extend beyond the expressive domain
46
What is meant by alternative splicing of mRNA?
RNA is edited before it is translated into a protein
- Pre-mRNA contains complementary copies of each proteins
- Pre-RNA is edited by a process known as alternative splicing
- The final product of editing is known as a RNA splice variant
- Allows for different functional proteins to emerge from the same gene
47
What's wrong with the DISC RNA in schizophrenia?
- Exons 3,7, and 8 of the RNA from the gene "Disrupted in Schizophrenia" or DISC are more likely to be missing from the DISC mRNA in schizophrenia
- The mRNA is still the same, but the splicing is different
48
What is post-translational processing?
Once a protein is made, it can be broken down into many different smaller proteins or peptides with different functions
49
How might post-translational processing go wrong in Alzheimer's disease?
- The amyloid precursor protein (APA) is cut incorrectly by an enzyme, causing the build-up of a peptide known as beta amyloid in the AD brain
- A lack of or too much post-translational processing alters proteins or disposal
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Genotype
refers to the DNA sequence of a gene
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Phenotype
refers to the behavioral manifestation of a genotype
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Communication within neurons
Message is digital
| -messages within neurons have an "electrical" composition
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Communication between neurons
Message is analog
| -messages between neurons have a "chemical" composition
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Membrane Potential
the relative difference in electrical charge (i.e., ions) between the inside and the outside of a cell
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Ions
are atoms that gain (anion (-inside of cell)) or lose (cation (+)) an electron
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Cations
- Na+=sodium
- K+=potassium
- Ca+2= calcium
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Anion
Cl-=chloride
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Potential
a measurement of a stored source of ions
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Resting potential membrane
measure of electrical charge inside the cell when it is inactive
-Usually around -70 millivolts in most neurons
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Three reasons why the resting membrane potential is negative
1) Sodium-Potassium Pumps:
- Three Na+ ions out/two K+ions in
2) Most proteins are anions
3) Ions maintain concentration gradients
- Ions seek area of lesser concentrations
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One reason why the resting potential is not too negative
Electrostatic gradients: ions seek areas opposite charges
| -K+ stays in the same cell based on its attraction to the negative charges within the cell
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Post-synaptic potentials (PSP's)
neurotransmitters bind to receptors on dendrites to produce small changes in the membrane potential
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ESPS (depolarization or excitatory PSP)
an increase in the membrane potential
| -ESPS's due to brief influx of Na+ or Ca+2 into the dendrite
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IPSP (hyperpolarization of inhibitory PSP)
a decrease in the membrane potential
| -IPSP's due to a brief influx of Cl- into the dendrite
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The Six Steps Involved in an Action Potential
1) Summation of EPSP's in cell body at beginning of axon
2) Threshold of excitation is met
3) Na+ enters neuron
4) K+ leaves neuron
5) Na+ stops entering neuron
6) K+ stops leaving neuron
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All-Or-None
either an action potential occurs or it does not
| -in a given neuron, every AP achieves the same voltage
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Rate Law
the frequency of action potentials (or firing) determines the strength of responding
-more AP's = more intense responses
68
Three different types of ion channels
* Protein-gated ion channel
* Chemically-gated ion channel
* Voltage-gated ion channel
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Protein-gated ion channel
protein called kinase adds a phosphate molecule to ion channel to open it
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Chemically-gated ion channel
neurotransmitter or another chemical bind to channel to open it
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Voltage-gated ion channel
channel opens when a specific membrane potential is achieved (Na+ channels on axons during APs)
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Phrenology
- Specific mental functions are regulated by specific brain regions
- the size of these brain regions can be detected by examining skull shape
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Equipotence
Each mental function requires multiple brain regions
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Directions in the brain: superior
top of the brain
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Directions in the brain: inferior
bottom of the brain
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Directions in the brain: posterior
back of the brain
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Directions in the brain: medial
middle of the brain
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Directions in the brain: lateral
outside of the brain
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
Is composed of the brain and the spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Neurons that project to or from the spinal cord on the base of the brain
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Brain contains two hemispheres
- Some functions are specific to left or right brain
| - Connected by bundle of axons (corpus callosum)
82
How are neurons arranged in the cortex?
- Outer portion of the cerebrum
* **Contains 75% of brain synapses
- Marked by gyri (hills) and sulci or fissures (valleys)
- The cortex is composed of six layers or rows of neurons
* **Neurons connected across the six layers makeup functional units known as columns
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What are features of the cortex might distinguish humans from other animals?
- Much of the human brain is cortex
* Hedgehog=16%
* Rat=31%
* Chimp=76%
* **HUMAN=77%***
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Brain areas that are unique to humans?
- Lateral prefrontal cortex might be specific to humans
| - More areas of premotor cortex in humans
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Four lobes of the cerebral cortex
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Temporal lobe
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Frontal Lobe
sequencing, inhibition, speech, movement
| -Posterior frontal cortex contains primary motor cortex
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Parietal Lobe
visual/spatial abilities and bodily sensations
| -Anterior parietal cortex contains primary somatosensory cortex
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Occipital Lobe
visual information
| -contains primary visual cortex
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Temporal Lobe
recognition of objects and places and hearing
| -contains primary auditory cortex
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Three areas of the limbic system
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Cingulate
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Hippocampus
encoding of new information
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Amygdala
activation of fear and aversive memory
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Cingulate
recognizes cognitive or emotional conflicts
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Henry Molaison (HM) (1926-2008)
Lived most of his life without a hippocampus
- Hippocampus was removed to help with his seizures due to epilepsy
- Resulted in him having no more seizures but also resulted in him having a 5-10 minute memory
* He could only retain information for 5-10 minutes and the he would forget
* ***But he could remember everything before the surgery***
95
Two areas of the basal ganglia
* Caudate Nucleus
| * Nucleus Accumbens (NA)
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Caudate Nucleus
Regulates execution of movement and habits
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Nucleus Accumbens (NA)
becomes active during states of pleasure
| -essentially the pleasure center of the brain
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Thalamus
Acts a relay between sensory input and the cortex
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Hypothalamus
regulates feeding, fighting, fleeing and sex
- coordinates circadian rhythm
- regulates endocrine function
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Pituitary Gland: Master Endocrine Gland
regulates hormone release from other glands
| -regulated by hypothalamus
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Five midbrain structures
- Superior inferior colliculus
- Reticular formation
- Substantia nigra
- Ventral tegmental area
- Periaqueductal gray matter
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Superior Inferior Gland
regulate reflexive responses to vision and hearing respectively
-located directly below the superior colliculus
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Reticular Formation
arousal
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Substantia Nigra
purposeful movements
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Ventral Tegmental Area
pleasure
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Periaqueductal Gray Matter
pain sensitivity
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Cerebellum
Hindbrain region that regulates motor learning and coordination
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Spinal Cord
Sensory and motor neurons
- Has a reflex arc (direct sensory neuron to motor neuron connection)
- Contains inhibitory interneurons within gray matter
* Interneuron
* **Break up reflex arc***
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Sensory neuron
brings tactile and pain signals into the spinal cord
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Motor neuron
send signals out from the spinal cord regarding movements
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Peripheral nervous system
Composed of spinal and cranial nerves
- Somatic nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
touch and movement of skeletal muscles
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Autonomic nervous system
controls smooth muscle tissue
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Vagal nerve
reduces activity in internal organs and provides brain with feedback
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Sympathetic nervous system
when active, increases heart rate, respiration, temperature, and decreases digestion
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Parasympathetic nervous system
does the opposite of the sympathetic nervous system
| -serves to slow the heart rate, increase intestinal and glandular activity, and relax the sphincter muscles
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Split-brain operation
Brain surgery that is occasionally performed to treat a form of epilepsy
-the surgeon cuts the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres of the brain
The corpus callosum enables the cerebral hemisphere to share information so that each side knows what the other side is perceiving and doing
After split brain operation is performed, the two hemispheres are disconnected and operate independently
-Their sensory mechanism, memories, and motor systems can no longer exchange information
***The right side of an epileptic person with a split brain appears to be able to understand verbal instructions reasonably well, but it is incapable of producing speech
118
Natural selection
the process by which inherited traits that confer a selective advantage
***increases an animal's likelihood to live and reproduce
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Evolution
a gradual change in the structure and physiology of plant and animal species- generally producing more complex organisms - as a result of natural selection
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Neoteny
a slowing of the process of maturation, allowing more time for growth; an important factor in the development of large brains
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Salutatory Conduction
Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons
- The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next
- From the latin word Saltare, which means to dance
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Development of the central nervous system
-Development of the human nervous system begins around the 18th day after conception
Part of the ectoderm (outer layer) of the back of the embryo thickens and forms a plate
*these edges start to curl toward eachother
-By the 21st day these ridges touch each other and fuse together
-By the 28th day of development the neural tube is closed and have developed three interconnected chambers, which eventually become: the forebrain, the midbrain, and hindbrain
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Computerized tomography (CT)
the use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of x-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body
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Magnetic Resonance Imagining (MRI)
a technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interactions between radio waves and a strong magnetic field
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
an imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an electrical brain potential recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp
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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
a procedure that detects groups of synchronously activated neurons by means of magnetic fields induced by their electrical activity
-Uses an array of superconducting quantium interference devices (SQUIDS)
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
a functional imaging method that reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer in the living brain
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functional MRI (fMRI)
a functional imaging method; a modification of the MRI procedure that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain
