EXAM 1 Flashcards
(32 cards)
Falsifiability
The inherent possibility that any statement, idea, hypothesis, or theory can be proven false by data
Hypothesis
Tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to either support or refute it
+ goal: test an aspect of a theory (if…then…)
Theory
Established systematic body of ideas and empirical data about a particular topic or phenomenon
Prediction
A directional, specific, and concrete guess at the outcome of a hypothesis based on experiment
*NOTE: If prediction is confirmed, hypothesis is supported, NOT proven
Risk-benefit analysis
Examination of potential risks and benefits likely to result from research
- Benefits - to participants, society, and science
+ can be direct (e.g. new skill, knowledge, or treatment) or material (e.g. money, gift, or prize)
- Risks - directly to participants
+ physical harm
+ stress
+ loss of confidentiality or privacy
Informed consent
Permission granted after the potential participants are provided with all information that might influence their decision to participate or not
+ purpose of research
+ risks and benefits
+ rights to refuse or terminate
Deception
Active misrepresentation of information about the nature of the study
Variable
Any event, situation, behavior, or individual characteristic that varies (with two or more levels or values)
- can have numeric OR categorical property (e.g. number of free throws OR gender)
Independent variable
Variable that is hypothesized to influence another variable (the “cause” in “cause and effect”)
- manipulated by researcher
- has nothing to do with participants
- horizontal axis on graph
Dependent variable
Variable that reflects the effect the independent variable has on participants
- measured by researcher
- vertical axis on graph
Third variable
Any variable that is extraneous to the two variables being studied
- a study can have multiple third variables
- can also be alternative explanations for the observed relationship between variables
Participant variable
A characteristic of an individual like age, gender, race, personality, etc.
- also called “subject variable” or “personal attribute”
- nonexperimental by nature (cannot be manipulated) -> must be measured
Third-variable problem
When there may be a relationship between 2 variables because some other variable causes both
- example: high income leads to lower anxiety AND more exercise
Randomization
Process in which group assignment and treatment assignment are done at random
- ensures that the individual characteristic of the two groups are virtually identical in every way
Experimental control
Process to keep all extraneous variables constant
- achieved by treating participants in all the groups identically, the only difference is the manipulated variable
+ example: treatment group and placebo group receive exact same treatment
Double-blind study
Study in which neither the experimenters nor the participants know who is receiving a particular treatment
Placebo group
Group of participant that receive the placebo instead of the treatment
- placebo: a fake that resembles the treatment but has no effect
Experimental method
Research method that involves direct manipulation and control of variables
- involves controlling 1 variable of interest and then observing the response
- can prove causality -> has high internal validity
Nonexperimental method
Research method in which relationships are studied by making observations or measurements of the variables of interest
- variables are observed as they occur naturally
- allows for observation of covariation between variables
- has low internal validity because:
+ can have many different factors that can be confounding variables
+ direction of cause and effect is difficult to determine
e.g. “Exercise causes anxiety reduction” vs. “Anxiety causes reduction in exercise” ?
Naturalistic observation
Study in which researchers make observations of individuals in the natural environment
- also called “field work” or “field observation”
- goal: provide a complete and accurate picture of what occurred in the setting, as opposed to test hypotheses
- requires the keeping of detailed notes
+ describe the setting, events, and persons
+ analyze observations = interpret data and generate hypotheses that explain the data
- data is primarily qualitative
- researcher can either participate in setting or not
+ participating makes the researcher an insider -> shares the experiences with other participants -> pros: friendship + more data, cons: loss of objectivity
- limitations:
+ not applicable to all issues and phenomena
+ very difficult to execute - time-consuming, no fixed schedues, and exhausting by nature
+ there is a lot to keep up with because the environments have many things going on simultaneously
+ analysis is difficult - time-consuming and requires interpretation
Systematic observation
Study in which careful observation of one or more behaviors in a particular setting
- only interested in very specific behaviors
- observations are quantifiable
- often times, hypotheses are developed beforehand
- requires coding system to measure behaviors
- limitations:
+ requires efficient means/equipments
+ possibility that the presence of the observer will affect people’s behavior (aka reactivity)
+ specific sampling -> low external validity?
+ possibility of inconsistent reliability (e.g. many researchers coding can have different outcomes)
Random sample
A sample from the population of participants that consists of individuals chosen at random
Coding system
System that defines and quantifies data
Operational definition
Set of procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable
- variable “bowling skill” can be operationalized as “number of pins knocked down in a single roll”
- more difficult to come up with for abstract behaviors or concepts
- purposes:
+ forces scientists to discuss abstract concepts in concrete terms
+ helps facilitate communication between researchers
