Exam 1 Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
Science of Human Development
A
The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.
2
Q
Scientific Method
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A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based questions.
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Theory
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A comprehensive set of ideas
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Hypothesis
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A scientific prediction that can be tested.
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Empirical
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Based on observation, experience, or experiment, not theoretical
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Replication
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Repeating a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, SES, or culture.
7
Q
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
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A situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep.
8
Q
Nature
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In development, nature refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.
9
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Nurture
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In development, nurture includes all the environmental influences that affect the individual after conception. This includes everything from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the cultural influences in the nation.
10
Q
Critical Period
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A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen for normal development to occur.
11
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Sensitive Period
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A time when a certain type of development is most likley, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning.
12
Q
Plasticity
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The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics can change over time. Plasticity is particularly evident during childhood, but even older adults are not always “set in their ways”
13
Q
Difference-equals-deficit error
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The mistaken belief that a deviation or characteristic that meet the standard.
14
Q
Social Construction
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An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms (such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen) are social constructions, connected to biological traits but strongly influenced by social assumptions.
15
Q
Culture
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A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions
16
Q
Ethnic Group
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People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture and religion.
17
Q
Race
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A group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance.
18
Q
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
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A person’s position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class)
19
Q
Dynamic Systems
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A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing, interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. The crucial understanding is that development is never static but is always affected by, and affects, many systems of development.
20
Q
Ecological Systems Approach
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A perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development. (Later renamed bioecological theory).
21
Q
Cohort
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People born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies, and cultural shifts at the same ages. For example, the effect of the internet varies depending on what cohort a person belongs to.
22
Q
Biopsychosocial
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A term emphasizing the interaction of the three developmental domains (biosocial, cognitive, and psychosocial). All development is biopsychosocial, although the domains are studied separately.
23
Q
Mirror Neurons
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Cells in observer’s brain that are activated by watching an action performed by someone else as they would be if the observer had personally performed this action.
24
Q
Scientific Observation
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A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants behavior in a systematic and objective manner–in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data.
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Independent Variable
In an experiment the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable (Also called experimental variable).
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Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.
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Survey
A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means.
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Cross-Sectional Research
A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.
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Longitudinal Research
A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time, as their development is repeatedly assessed.
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Cohort-Sequential Research
A research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cross-sequential research or time-sequential research).
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Correlation
A number between +1.0 and -1.0 that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation indicates only that two variables are somehow related, not that one variable causes the other to occur.
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Quantitative Research
Reserach that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.
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Qualitative Research
Research that considers qualities, not quanitities. Narrative accounts and individual variations are often stressed in qualitative research.
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Code of Ethics
A set of moral principles or guidelines that members of a profession or group are expected to follow.
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Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A group within most educational and medical institutions who ensure that research following established ethical guidelines. Unlike in prior decades, most research in human development cannot begin without IRB approval.
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Developmental Theory
A group of ideas, assumption, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.
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Norm
An average, or typical, standard of behavior or accomplishment, such as the norm for age of walking or the norm for greeting a stranger.
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Psychoanalytic Theory
A grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.
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Behaviorism
A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.
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Conditioning
According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time.
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Classical Conditioning
The learning processes in which a meaningful stimulus (such as in the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning. (Also called respondent conditioning).
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Operant Conditioning
The learning processes by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be reapeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning).
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Reinforcement
When a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person.
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Social Learning Theory
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. (Also called observational learning).
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Modeling
The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the action of others and then copies them.
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Self-efficacy
In social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter the social context.
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Cognitive Theory
A grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
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Cognitive Equilibrium
In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.
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Assimilation
The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas.
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Accomodation
The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences.
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Information-Processing Theory
A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections stored memories, and output.
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Sociocultural Theory
A newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces.
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Apprenticeship in Thinking
Vygotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society.
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Guided Participation
The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations.
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Zone of Proximal Development
In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone," surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close ("proximal") to acquiring but cannot yet master without help.
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Humanism
A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.
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Selective Adaptation
The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent.
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Eclectic Perspective
The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.
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Deoxyribosenucleic Acid (DNA)
The chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.
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Chromosome
One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer chromosomes.
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Gene
A small section of a chromosome; the basic unit for the transmission of heredity. A gene consists of a string of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins.
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Allele
A variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics. Many genes never vary; others have several possible alleles.
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Genome
The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.
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Gamete
A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to make a zygote.
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Zygote
The single cell formed from the union of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum.
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Genotype
An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
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Homozygous
Referring to two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code. Most gene pairs are homozygous.
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Heterozygous
Referring to two genes of one pair that differ in some way. Typically one allele has only a few base pairs that differ from the other member of the pair.
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Uncertain Sex
Every now and then, a baby is born with "ambiguous genitals," meaning that the child's sex is not abundantly clear. When this happens, a quick analysis of the chromosomes is needed, to make sure there are exactly 46 and to see whether the 23rd pair is XY or XX. The karyotypes shown here indicate a normal baby boy (left) and girl (right).
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23rd Pair
The chromosome pair that, in humans, determines sex. The other 22 pairs are autosomes; inherited equally by males and females.
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XX
A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of two X-shaped chromosomes, one each from the mother and the father. XX zygotes become females.
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XY
A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of an X-shaped chromosome from the mother and a Y-shaped chromosome from the father, XY zygotes become males.
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Stem Cells
Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form.
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Monozygotic (MZ) Twins
Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called identical twins). Other monozygotic multiple births (such as triplets and quadruplets) can occur as well.
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Dizygotic (DZ) Twins
Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time (Also called fraternal twins).
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Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)
A general term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and then sustain a pregnancy.
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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Fertilization that takes place outside a woman's body (as in a glass laboratory dish). The procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. If a zygote is produced, it is inserted into a woman's uterus, where it may implant and develop into a baby.
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Phenotype
The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.
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Polygenic
Referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes.
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Multifactorial
Referring to a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype.
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Epigenetic
Referring to environmental factors that affect genes and genetic expression--enhancing, halting, shaping or altering the expression of genes and resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype.
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Human Genome Project
An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing.
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Dominant Recessive Pattern
The interaction of a heterozygous pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reflects one allele (the dominant gene) more than the other (the recessive gene).
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Carrier
A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. The carried gene occurs in half of the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to half of the carrier's children. If such a gene is inherited from both parents, the characteristic appears in the phenotype.
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Copy Number Variations
Genes with various repeats or deletions of base pairs.
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Heritability
A statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular context and era, can be traced to genes.
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Down Syndrome
A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with 3 rather than 2 chromosomes at the 21st site. People with Down syndrome typically have distinctive characteristics, including unusual facial features, heart abnormalities, and language difficulties. (Trisomy-21).
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Fragile X syndrome
A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thing string of molecules. The cause is a single gene that has more than 20 repetitions of one triplet.
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Genetic Counseling
Consultation and testing by trained experts that enable individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they might pass along to any children they may conceive.
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A genetic disorder in which a child's body is unable to metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine. Unless the infant immediately begins a special diet, the resulting buildup of phenylalanine in body fluids cases brain damage, progressive mental retardation, and other symptoms.
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Germinal Period
The first two weeks of prenatal development alter conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
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Embryonic Period
The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs develop.
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Fetal Period
The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own.
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Implantation
The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.
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Embryo
The name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception.
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Fetus
The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.
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Ultrasound
An image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high-frequency sound waves. (Also called sonogram).
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Age of Viability
The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.
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Apgar Scale
A quick assessment of a newborn's health. The baby's color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice--at one minute and five minutes after birth--and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the maximum score of 10 (rarely attained).
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Doula
A woman who helps with the birth process. Traditionally in Latin America, a doula was the only professional who attended childbirth. Now doulas are likely to arrive at the woman's home during early labor and later work alongside a hospital's staff.
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Teratogens
Agents and conditions, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death.
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Behavioral Teratogens
Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.
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Threshold Effect
In prenatal development, when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (the threshold).
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded mental development, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant.
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False Positive
The results of a laboratory test that reports something as true when in fact it is not true. This can occur for pregnancy tests, when a woman might not be pregnant even though the test says she is, or during pregnancy when a problem is reported that actually does not exist.
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Low-birthweight (LBW)
A body weight at birth of les than 5.5 pounds.
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Preterm
A birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of a typical pregnancy--that is, at 35 of fewer weeks after conception.
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Small for Gestational Age
A term for a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a five pound (2,265 gram) newborn is considered SGA if born on time but not SGA if born two months early.
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Cerebral Palsy
A disorder that results from damage to the brain's motor centers. People with cerebral palsy have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired.
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Anoxia
A lack of oxygen that if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death.
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Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
A test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes.
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Reflex
An unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex occurs without conscious thought.
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Couvade
Symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers.
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Parental Alliance
Cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children. In a parental alliance, the parents support each other in their shared parental roles.
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Postpartum Depression
A new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth.
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Parent-Infant Bond
The strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn.
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Kangaroo Care
A form of newborn care in which mothers (and sometimes fathers) rest their babies on their naked chests, like kangaroo mothers that carry their immature newborns in a pouch on their abdomen.
