Exam 1 Flashcards
(159 cards)
1
Q
contaminant
A
anything added to the environment that causes a deviation from the average composition that a particular phase of environment would have in the absence of human activity
2
Q
air pollution
A
the excessive concentration of foreign material in the air which adversely affects the well being of humans, plants, or animals or causes damage to property
1) personal (indoor): cigarettes, pipes, household sprays
2) occupational: workplace (in or outdoor)
3) Community: ambient or outdoor
3
Q
pollutants for us
A
we call contaminants pollutants when they adversely affect something we value, and is present in high enough concentration to do so
which contaminants are called pollutants is changeable: at one point soot was the only air pollutant, now there are hundreds
4
Q
1970 US clean air act
A
air quality criteria documents (books)
contained a summary of what is known about:
sulfur oxides, particulates, oxidants, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides
5
Q
Carbon Dioxide
A
until 25 years ago the goal was to breakdown pollutants to CO2 - it was not a pollutant
NOW because it is a greenhouse gas and global warming, it is our most concerning pollutant because of climate change
climate change crisis means energy crisis
6
Q
Meuse valley, Belgium 1930
A
first modern air pollution disaster
river valley, densely populated, highly industrialized
it was winter and there was high barometric pressure and thermal temperature inversion
63 people, mostly elderly died
symptoms: shortness of breath, cough, nausea, vomiting
because SO2 mixed with H2O making SO4 sulfuric acid mist
cattle, birds and rats died
7
Q
Donora Pennsylvania 1948
A
Monogahela river surrounded by mountains and the valley between the mountains and a set of railroad tracks is a natural trap for pollutants
industrial town-steel mill, sulfuric acid plant,
small population- 14000
there was a temperature inversion- warm air trapped cold air near the ground and there was a fog that lasted 4.5 days
the fog then turned into very thick smoke that made it hard to see through
air started smelling of sulfur dioxide (pollutnat was SULFUR DIOXIDE AND PARTICULTES-so turned into ACID SMOG since coal burning, industry and urbanization)
6000 people became sick, 20 died
U.S Public health service was called in- first time air pollution officially recognized as health problem
sulfur gas+particulates=sulfuric acid mist
calls for help suddenly stopped even though the dense fog remained, maybe since the fog droplets had gotten so big they couldnt get into lungs
8
Q
C. Poza Rico, Mexico 1950
A
single source of pollution- high sulfur crude oil- Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
inversion in valley, 22 sudden deaths, 320 hospitalized of all ages
9
Q
1952 Great London smog
A
londoners burned soft coal in factories and power plants
temperature inversion
5 days of the worst smog the city had ever seen
“pea soup”- public transportation stopped, indoor concerts had to be stopped because no one could see the stage
people died a lot in a short time frame
causes were bronchitis, coronary disease pneumonia
high deaths correlated with high smoke concentrations
new analysis showed that small particles were found deep in the victim’s lungs and that pollution levels during the episode were 5 times above current regulatory standards
(pollutnat was SULFUR DIOXIDE AND PARTICULTES- so turned into ACID SMOG since coal burning, industry and urbanization)
10
Q
world-wide air pollution episode
A
nov 27- dec 10, 1962
thousands of excess deaths in many cities including NYC, London, Boston, Paris
11
Q
Seveso, Italy
A
a valve broke at the Insudtrie Chimiche something something chemical plant
cloud of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzopara-dioxin (TCDD) (or just Dioxin) traveled southwest through Seveso toward Milan and it was a contaminant of herbicide
it is a selective killer of leafed weed (was used in agent orange)
4% of farm animals died and the rest had to be killed
Italian government tried to cover it up
12
Q
TCDD (Dioxin)
A
caused nacrosis of liver, GI tract bleeding, stomach ulcers
was used in agent orange
is a selective killed of leafed weeds
13
Q
Bhopal India 1984
A
pesticide plant leak killed up to 2000 with upto 350,000 injured and 100,000 permanent disabilities
due to Methyl isocyanate (MIC)
carbon monoxide combined with chlorine to form phosgene, phosgene combine with methylamin to form MIC
MIC is an irritant to the lungs- causes edema, fluid (causes of death, bronchospasms, corneal opacity
felt like breathing fire
“worst industrial accident in history”
14
Q
Similarities among disasters in history
A
winter months dense populations heavy industrialization often a valley temperature inversion stagnant air accident, or a mixture created from non-accidents
15
Q
African lakes
A
2 west african lakes killed more than 1700 people because of a gas buildup of CO2 to toxic levels that erupted
16
Q
how was inorganic mercury taken up into the foodchain
A
the inorganic mercury was methylated by microorganisms in the anaerobic sludge lying at the bottom of the bay and so became more soluble in fatty tissue and was easily taken up into living organisms
17
Q
risk assessment
A
the use of a base of scientific research to define the probability of some harm coming to an individual or a population as a result of exposure to a substance or situation
18
Q
risk management
A
is the public process of deciding what to do where risk has been determined to exist
it includes integrating risk assessment with considerations of engineering deasibility and figuring out how to exercise our imperitice to reduce risk in the light of social, economic and political factors
19
Q
PCBs
A
mixture od 209 individual chlorinated compounds
are fat-soluble, water insoluble hydrocarbons
have no smell or taste, are colorless to light yellow
extremely stable
fire resistant and an electrical insulator
workers exposed to high doses develop certain kinds of cancers including liver and biliary tract cancer
EPA and International agency for research on cancer have determined them to be carcinogenic to humans
20
Q
what are the health risk assessment components
A
hazard identification, dose-response assessment and exposure assessment are used to characterize risk
21
Q
exposure assessment for chemicals formula
A
C= Q/(LxDxW)
C= exposed person's concentration Q= amount released L= Distance D= Dispersion W=wind speed
22
Q
epidemiology
A
the study of the distribution and causes of health and illness in human populations
23
Q
environmental epidemiology
A
determines whether a given exposure of a chemical hazardous to human health
24
Q
toxicology
A
The study of the harmful actions of chemicals on biologic tissue
The study of poisons
25
Measuring risk
measuring risk is calculating the probability and severity of public health harm; it is a empirical scientific activity
26
judging safety
judging the safety of risks, is a normative, political and value laden activity
27
de minimus
there is an acceptable small amount of each substance (may be different for each substance but not zero)
there is no such thing as zero risk: there is always some small acceptable level of risk
28
reasons given for not protecting the environemtn
```
we need more study
it would hurt the economy
it would cost jobs
the risk is exaggerated
the damage is trivial
you can't keep changing the rules
trust us to handle it ourselves
we can't afford to accept liability
you've got to make hard choices
if you've seen one tree, you've seen them all
```
29
the precautionary principle
when an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically
has 4 components:
-taking preventive action in the face of uncertainty
-shifting the burden of proof to the proponents of an activity
-exploring a wide range of alternative to possibly harmful actions
-increasing the public participation in decision making
30
epidemiology
the study of the distribution and causes of health and illness in human populations
or
the study of how disease is distributed in populations and the factors that influence or determine this distribution
disease occurence or its outcome is NOT random, but can vary depending on a variety of characteristics and predisposing factors.
31
natural history of infectious disease
pathological onset/infection-> incubation period->1st symptoms-?clinical disease during which diagnosis occurs->outcome
32
incubation period
time between exposure to an infectious agent and onset of symptoms
typical for each infectious disease but variable depending on dose, route, replication rate, host responses
same as the latent period in non-infectious diseases such as cancer, heart disease
33
latent period
is for non-infectious diseases such as cancer, heart disease
same as the incubation period
take years or decades before illness is apparent (long)
no multiplication of causative agent is involved
multiple low-dose exposures (some chemicals)
some conditions evolve subsequent to chronic conditions or high risk states such as obesity, smoking, diabetes and high blood cholesterol
34
epidemic
the occurence in a community or region of cases of an illnes or health-related event clearly in excess of normal expectancy
35
prevalence rate per 1000
number of cases of disease present in the population at a specified time/number of persons in the population at that specified time x1,000
36
incidence rate per 1000
=number of new cases of a disease in a population during a specific period/ number of persons exposed to risk of developing the disease during that time x 1,000
37
ebola outbreak
graph showing increasing cases and deaths
one case could lead to man others
always treated as an epidemic - even one case
38
the changing contribution of chronic and infectious to total mortality in the U.S
the 11 major infectious conditions are decreasing while the 3 major chronic conditions- heart disease, cancer, stroke are increasing
(deaths by accidents also increasing)
39
trend in cancer over the years
lung and bronchus cancer were increasing but now slowly decreasing- still more cases than before
stomach cancer has decreased over the years
same for men and women except men have higher rate of lung and bronchus
40
tumor
is a disorder of cells
abnormal growth of cells
a neoplasm is the autonomous growth of tissue that have escaped the normal restraints on cell proliferation (apoptosis-normal cell death, and often exhibit non-differentiation)
41
neoplams
a neoplasm is the autonomous growth of tissue that have escaped the normal restraints on cell proliferation (apoptosis-normal cell death, and often exhibit non-differentiation)
are irreversible, and their growth is mostly autonomous (self-governing)
42
cancer
is malignant unrestrained proliferation of somatic cells
43
invasion
malignant tumors-cancer- are capable of invasion-spread of the neoplasm into adjacent structures
44
metastasis
malignant tumors are capable of metastasis- implantation of the neoplams into noncontiguous sites (not next to each other, don't touch each other)
45
possible reasons for changes in mortality trends of disease
A. artifcatual
1) errors in the numerator die to:
changes in the recognition of disease
changes in rules and procedures for classification of causes of death
changes in accuracy of reporting age at death
2) errors in the denominator due to:
errors in the enumeration of the population
B. real
1) changes in age distribution of th epopulation
2) changes in survivorship
3) changes in incidence of disease: the result of genetic factors or environmental factors
46
trends males vs females
males die at higher rate at every age than females
women live longer than men
while women live longer than men, they have more `medical conditions or are sicker
47
retrospective study
select cases and controls, then look for past exposure to a factor to study cause
48
prospective study
select cohort, classif as to exposure to factor, then follow over time to see if disease develops
49
historical perspective
identify cohort defined in the past->on basis of existing record classify individuals in cohort as to past exposure to factor -> determine whether disease has developed
50
indirect epidemiology studies in environmental risk assessment
```
these studies comapre groups not individuals
weakness of these studies:
possibility of indirect association
interpretation of negative results
often look at agents one at a time
comparibility of data by place and time
mobility problem
```
51
air pollution
Air pollution may be defined as the presence in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in such quantities and of such durations as may be or tend to be injurious to human, animal or plant life, or property, or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property or conduct of business.
52
air pollutant
It is a substance or effect dwelling temporarily or permanently in the air , which adversely alters the environment by interfering with the health, the comfort, or the food chain, or by interfering with the property values of people.
A pollutant can be solid (large or sub-molecular), liquid or gas .
It may originate from a natural or anthropogenic source (or both).
It is estimated that anthropogenic sources have changed the composition of global air by less than 0.01%.
However, it is widely accepted that even a small change can have a significant adverse effect on the climate, ecosystem and species on the planet.
Examples of these are acid rain, ozone in the lower atmosphere, and photochemical smog.
53
pollutants
can be:
particles: solids or liquids suspended in air
gases (vapors)
radioactive
54
Particles
can be solid or liquid suspended in air
1) dust-man made or natural
2) fumes-oxides of metal formed by combustion of metal
3) mist- fine liquid droplets
4) smoke-gases and solids-product of combustion, or soot
55
L.A photochemical or oxidizing smog composition
NOx and hydrocarbons (VOC volatile organic chemicals)= ozone precursors+ sunlight
in the atmosphere-chemical reactions that result in 03 and other oxidants such as PAN (eye irritant)
56
fossil fuels complete and incomplete combustion
complete combustion results in CO2 and H2O
| incomplete combustion results in CO, soot, organics (in the air) and NOx
57
lead trends
lead based paint peaked in the 1920s and then gradually died out
as lead based paint use was decreasing, leaded gasoline was increasing
both sources contributed to the problem of lead in the environment
58
absorption of lead
lead goes down the iron or calcium pathway
lead absorption is enriched if diet is poor in iron or calcium
children absorb lead well orally, adults poorly
children also have more hand to mouth activity
Pica (an eating disorder typically defined as the persistent ingestion of nonnutritive substances for at least 1 month at an age for which this behavior is developmentally inappropriate) is one of the worst risk factors
lead can be inhaled
tetraethyle lead can be absorbed via skin
leads to IQ and developmental problems in children
59
distribution of lead
goes into bones
binds into matrix
released during osteolysis (the pathological destruction or disappearance of bone tissue as you get older)
4% in brain, liver, kidneys
1% in blood
crosses the placental and foetal and can be absorbed by the fetus through the mother
60
health effects of lead
concentration related
IQ/delinquicy related to toal dosage in childhood
can cause IQ/hearing growth problems, interfere with brain cell development, cause premature births, reduced birth weight, difficulty maintaining steady posture, interferes in ability to make red blood cells, decreases ability to use Vitamin D, decreases ability to make red blood cells, stomach ache/cramps, frank anemia, kidney damage, coma/seizures (at higher levels) and can also cause death at very high levels
61
specturm of biological response to pollutant exposure such as lead
large number of population affected, but only a small percentage feels adverse health affects from the pollutant
62
effects of lead on children
neurobehavioral: decreased intelligence, developmental delays, behavioral distrubances, seizure and coma (at very high levels)
growth: decreased stature
endocrinologic: altered vitamin D metabolism
hematologic: elevated erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels, anemia
on the fetus: decreased gestational (the process of carrying or being carried in the womb between conception and birth) weight, decreased gestational age, miscarriage and still birth (at very high levels)
exposure in childhood leads to reading disabilities in young adulthood and a failure to complete high school
also high agression, high delinqunecy
no safe level of lead
63
trends in lead absorption based on race/male and females
in all ages, black people had higher lead in their blood than hispanics or whites
in most ages hispanics had more blood than whites but less than blacks
males had more lead in their blood across all ages than females
64
contribution of sources of lead that lead to children getting exposed
```
dust/soil-55%
food-20%
air-15%
water and other sources-10%
children probably get exposed to higher levels of lead when playing inside by walls with lead based paint or durring lunch time when theyre playing outside
```
65
how to screen for lead in children`
blood lead test since EP, erythrocyte protoporphyrin is not sensitive enough to identify children with low lead levels
66
repair and remodeling older homes in relatin to lead
There is a lot of R&R activity going on in older homes
Some paint removal and preparation techniques (heat guns, etc.) may create a potential lead contamination problems in homes with young children.
Proper precautions should be taken in performing home R&R in older homes that might contain lead based paint.
67
functions of respiratory system
intake of O2, removal of CO2
maintains hoeostasis: pH, CO2, acid-base balance of blood
endocrine function
protective-defense functions
68
alveolus
the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange
healthy membrane important for this- if membrane gets sick or alveolus swells up or fill up with fluid, red cell doesn't get O2 in time and O2 levels in blood drop
69
physiological defense mechanisms of the body against prenetration and retention, as well as removal
```
against penetration and retention:
filtration at nose
laryngeal closure
bronchospasm
slow breathing, breathholding
```
removal:
coughing, sneezing, gagging
mucocilary transport
alevolar clearance by macrophages
70
lung defenses
airways:
cough
mucociliary clearance
secretory IgA (a class of immunoglobulins that include antibodies found in external bodily secretions (as saliva, tears, and sweat))
lysozymes (an enzyme that catalyzes the destruction of the cell walls of certain bacteria, occurring notably in tears and egg white), defensins
epithelial cells: epitheial barrier, mucin release, antimicrobial peptides, bacterial receptors, cytokines
blood derived cells: dendritic, lymphocytes B and T etc
alveolar spaces: alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes, neutrophils, opsonins and IgG
71
damage to lungs by smoking
smoking-> stimulates growth of leukocytes-> they excrete proteases which dissolves proteins in the lungs->causes destruction and emphysema (a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness)
antiproteases neutralize the effects of proteases. Ex: alpha 1 antitrypsin
72
examples of how a physiologic defence response can result in disease
highly controlled inflammatory pathways= Physiologic response
amplified-uncontrolled expression of those pathways= disease
73
pulmonary function test
Spirometry: a common office test used to assess how well your lungs work by measuring how much air you inhale, how much you exhale and how quickly you exhale. Spirometry is used to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect breathing
lung volumes,
diffusing capacity
a person with asma would take in less O2
74
spirometry
a common office test used to assess how well your lungs work by measuring how much air you inhale, how much you exhale and how quickly you exhale. Spirometry is used to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect breathing.
a person with asma would take in less O2
75
what do the site and intensity of the injury depend on (for resp. problems)
```
they depend on physico-chemical proterties: particle size, concentration, density, solubility, reactivity
duration of exposure
rate/depth of breathing
host response variability/susceptibility
host defense mechanisms
```
76
TLV-TWA
time weighted average concentration for 8 hours. Most workers will have adverse effects
77
TLV-STEL
max concentraion for up to 15 minutes that can cause chronic or irreversible changes in tissues or narcosis
78
airways exposure effects (to toxin/paticles)
acute massive: chemical bronchitis->either complete recovery or chronic bronchitis-Asthma like disease or death
chronic low: chronic bronchitis
acute low-> allergic asthma
79
chronic bronchitis
can be cause by acute massie or chronic low levels of exposure to paticles/harmful substance
more prevalent in smokers than nonsmokers
80
occupational asthma
asthma attack during work or hours after work
association of symptoms to workplace
if there is no latency then you are being exposed to an irritant at work
if there is latency then more difficult to diagnose, there could be many causes, allergic/nonallergic sensitization
81
etiology (manner of cause) mechanism inducers
immunologic:
- IgE mediated- those things with high molecular weight such as grain, crab, woods, animal dander
- cell mediated-low molecular weight sich as di-isocyanates, red cedar, cobalt
nonimmunogenic:
-irritant-toxic such as ammonia, chlorine
82
hypersensitivity pneumonitis
lung disease resulting from sensitization and recurren exposure to organiz dusts
symptoms hours after exposure
fevers, chills, cough
abnormal lung functions
acute, subacute or chronic
ex: bird breeder, farmer's lung due to hay etc
treatment is: avoidance of exposure or corticosteroids
83
pulmonary adema
caused by Nitrogen dioxide (among other things)
| excess fluid in the lungs
84
defective zamboni disease
No2+CO
| caused cough, headache, hemoptysis and other lung related symptoms
85
how to study the structure of the atomosphere
the classification of atmospheric layers is based on temperature
plot ht eair temp versus height to see if some distinct structure exists
86
troposphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere
air temp decreases with height in general
this is a layer of strong convection that causes many weather phenomena- clouds, rains, snow etc
the common weather phenomena are restricted to this layer onl
thickness of layer varies from place to place-usually thicker near equator and thinner near the poles
this is the layer we live in
the top of the troposphere is called the tropopause where the temp minimum occurs
87
stratosphere
above the tropopause
the temp stays relatively constant with height for a while, then increases with height
the temp max is called the stratopause
the stratosphere is a calm layer, with almost no clouds or other weather phenomena
there is a type of cloud called the mother of pearl clouds which are mostly aerosol particles (mostly frozen sulfuric acid droplets than water
commercial jets usually fly in lowest stratosphere
the protective ozone concentration is in this layer
88
static stability of atmosphere
in a stable atmosphere, air pollutants are trapped locally
on the other hand, air pollutnats can be transported to much longer distances in unstable atmosphere because an unstable atmopshere causes more vigorous vertical motion
stability of atmosphere is determined by its temp lapse rate
when the lapse rate of an atmosphere is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is stable and vice versa (when both equal, atmosphere is neutral)
89
smog
urbanization, especially cars produces NO2 nitrogen dioxide which is a precursor of photochemical smog
in the presence of sunlight, photochemical reactions occur that produce smog
especially if there is a stable atmosphere
90
LA air quality
LA basin has lots of cars, high urbanization, climate is dominated by the Eastern Pacific high-the subsistance above produces compression heating of the air and the temperature is often higher at a few hundred ft than at the surface= creating an inversion which is an absolutely stable condition
the subsidence also produces clear air- it is hard to produce clouds and rain due to weak vertical motion
so the sky is clear most of the time
the topography of LA basin traps a lot of air pollutants so smog can be very sever in LA
91
chemical reactions of smog
fast reactions produce NO and O3
NO2+light->NO + O and O+O2->O3 +neutral molecule
then O3+NO->NO2+O2
slow reactions produce free radicals
92
eastern pacific high
Eastern Pacific High is a semi-permanent high pressure system that dominates the weather pattern of southern California most of the time. It is one of the ‘subtropical high pressure systems
this dominates the LA area, so if this decreases- ex if a low pressure system moves in, then the inversion layer created by it disappears and air quality improves
93
air stagnation
high pressure systmes cause more severe local air quality problems due to their weak wind condition called air stagnation
is useful to determine air quality
ex: smoky mountains where plants eject particles into the air and due to the stagnation of the air the particles stay in the air for a long time creating the hazy appearence of the smoky mountains= a natural phenomenon, not man made pollution
94
asbestos exposure pyramind
a ton of people are exposed to it, but a very few are actually affected
Asbestos miners and millers exposed to it the most-> then asbestos procesors-making products in factories-> then the product users such as insulators, maintenance people etc-> then people get contact through household contact, in place materials, consumer products (least affected)`
95
asbestos exposure model
exposure duration x intensity= disease risk
| as silicosis deaths were going down over the years, asbestosis deaths were increasing
96
asbestos related diseases
asbestosis, lung cancer, mesothelioma
lung cancer is cause by both cigarettes and asbestos so hard to tell the exact cause
mesothelioma is definitely caused by asbestos
97
bystander exposure
people who aren't directly working with asbestos but are exposed to it and its is harmful for them
98
why are people still getting sick from asbestos
prisoners of the past
unstudied problems
latency period of 20+ years,
99
mount sinai hospital in new your NY
there was construction work/renovation being done next to the hospital, and the pulmonary department kept finding asbestos in the patients tubes etc
100
why can asbestos be found everywhere in urban cities
because people aren't careful in transporting it/don't care if they drop it while transport
construction/demolition sites don't follow rules when doing demolitions so it gets everywhere
101
Doll and Hill
British doctors
sent out questionnaires on smoking habits to all british physicians
received lots of replies
followed for deaths (medical journals obits, death certificates)
they again found heavy smoking in lung cancer patients and showed it
102
wynder and graham
doctors in the states
physician authors interviewed cases n previous smoking, occupation
684 cases
780 male controls- they wer einterviewed by 2 on-medical researchers
showed smoking associated with lung cancer
recieved lots of criticism due to physicians/interviewees being biased, not taking other factors into account etc
first majoor scientific publication about smoking causing lung cancer
103
Hammond and Horn
used volunteers to study smoking and cancer relation
| each volunteer filled out smoking habits of 10 white men and reported alive, dead, or don't know each year
104
methanol cigarettes
cigarette industry came up with all kinds of things/variations to sell cigarettes
methanol cigarettes were more addictive, made it more difficult to quit smoking
105
benzo(a)pyrene
crucial ingredient in tar in cigarettes
lung cancer causing agent- the worst
was found to be higher in sidestream smoke which is what affected others (sidestream smoke has less O2 and more other bad chemicals)
106
nicotine
in cigarettes
addictive-as addictive as heroin, which is why you don't tell people to quit cold-turkey
cigarette industry had known beforehand that it was as addictive as heroin and hid it from the public
107
sidestream smoke effects
more benzo(a)pyrene in this, less O2 and more other bad stuff
this is what other people/non smokers would be affected by
studies came out showing higher cancer rates in non-smoker wives of smokers compared to non-smokr wives of non-smokers
children of smokers had decreased small airways developement
disease resistance to respiratory diseases in children of smokers decreased
maternal smoking during pregnancy leads to smaller babies (bigger babies are healthier)+other conditions
108
tobacco trends
not hopeful
cigarette industry started selling them around the world targeting youth, minorities, women etc
women have a harder time quitting
white women and men smoke more than african american males and females in terms of highschool students
lung cancer is increasing in women
woman's risk for death doubles when smoking compared to non smoking, in all ages from 45 to 74
109
tobacco composition, effects, effects on repreoduction
contains over 60 carcinogens including benzo(A)pyerene
and nicotine of course
increases the risk for lung cancer, other cancers, stroke\
Postmenopausal women who smoke have lower bone density than women who never smoked. Women who smoke have an increased risk for hip fracture than never smokers.
effect on reproduction:increases risk for infertility, preterm deliery, stillbirth, low birth weight, sudden infance death syndrome,
110
COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
life-threatening lung disease, interferes with normal breathing
"smoker's cough"
so many people all over the world have it
leads to 5% deaths annually
primary cause is tobacco smoke (through use or second hand smoke)
affects men and women equally now due to in part to increased tobacco use by women in high income countries
not curable, but treatment can slow progress of disease
total deaths from it are projected to increase by more than 30%
111
poisonous gases and chemicals found in tobacco smoke
| toxic metal in tobacco smoke
poisonous gases& chemicals in tobacco smoke:
hydrogen cyanide, CO, butane, ammonia, toluene
toxic metals: arsenic, lead, chromium, cadmium
112
major conclusion of the 2006 surgeon general report
- children and adults are still exposed to secondhand smoke
- causes premature death and disability
- children are especially vulnerable to poisons in secondhand smoke
- exposure has immediate effects and causes serious diseases
- there is no risk-free level of exposure
- eliminating smoking indoors is the only way to reduce the risk from exposure
113
health effects of tobacco smoke on children
incr risk of sudden infant death syndrome
acute respiratory infections
ear infections
more severe asthma
smoking by parents causes respiratory symptoms and slows lung growth
114
no risk free level of secondhand smoke
immediate effects occur in cardiovascular system, increasing risk of heart attack
irritation and damage to the lining of the airways
115
ventilation in relation to secondhand smoke
ventilation can NOT reduce the health risks of secondhand smoke
- air handling systems circulate it throughout the building
- air cleaning reduced smells but not the hazardous small particles or gases found in secondhand smoke
116
smoking policies in madison
uw-madiosn is smoke-freww, prohibiting smoking inside buildings and vehicles
later expanded to include outdoor areas near entrances
madiso also adopted a plan to phase in a resturaunt smoking ban. resturaunts are 100% smoke free 3 years later
madison banned smoking in bars too
smoking ban in colleges in hospitals
implemented statewide indoor smoking ban including resturaunts and bar
117
NAAQS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Clean air act
primary goal is to prevent human health effects
secondary is to prevent welfare (materials, plants, animals) effects
NAAQS are goals to be met by the country
118
SO2
belongs to family of sulfur oxides
sulfur prevalent in fossil fuels
clean coal is low in sulfur
65% of SO2 emissions in U.S from electric utilities (coal burning)
burning of fossil fuels produces->sulfur dioxide SO2->mixing with O2 produces SO3->mixing with water vapor produces H2SO4 Sulfuric acid->mixing with ammonia produces Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
other sources: industrial facilities that get raw materials like metallic ore, coal, crude oil or that burn coal or oil to produce process heat, ;arge ships, nonroad diesel equipment
119
Problems with SO2
SO2 contributes to repiratory illness especially in children and the elderly, and aggravates existing heart and lung diseases
people with asthma are especially affected- high levels emitted over a short period like a day are particularly problematic for people with asthama
SO2 contributes to the formation of acid rain which damages trees, crops, historic buildings, and monuments, makes soils, lakes and streams acidic
SO2 can be transported over long distances
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acid rain
sulfates AND nitrogen oxides react with other substances in the air to form acids which fall to earth as rain, fog, snow or dry particles
some may be carried by the wind for hundreds of miles
accelerates weathering in metal and stone structures, decaying irreplaceable monuments and sculptures that are part of our world's cultural heritage
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acid rain lake damage
plant and water damage
acid rain damages forests and crops, changes the makeup of soil and makes lakes and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish
continued exposure over a long time changes the natural variety of plants and animals in an ecosystem
as acidity increases, lakes clear up=dead lakes
less algae, less insects, less fish
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SO2 respiratory effects
peak levels of SO2 in air can cause temporary breathing difficulty for people with asthma who are active outdoors
long-term exposure to high levels of SO2 gas and particles cause respiratory illness and aggravate existing heart disease
-SO2 reacts with other chemicals in the air to form tiny sulfate particles. when these are breathed, they gather in the lungs and are associated with increased resporatory symptoms and disease, difficulty breathing and premature death
particles catalyze acid formation
hard to seperate particles from Sulfate
in buffalo NY, high particulates correlated with high deaths
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respiratory effects of PM10 and PM25
stimulate nerves in central airways, leading to coughing and bronchochonstriction
bind to recpetors in narrow airways, causing constriction and increase in airway resistance in both animals and humans
occurs with particles of all composition; specific mechanism not known
-acidic particles more potent
clearance
-mucociliary transport slowed by particulates
-macrophage phagoctosis
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particulates
higher particulates, higher death rates
| are very small
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preventive measures for SO2
scrubber:removes, or "scrubs," SO2 emissions from the exhaust of coal-fired power plants produces pH-neutral calcium sulphate that is then physically removed from the scrubber, and can be used for industrial purposes
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trend of SO2 and NOx power plant emissions
SO2 emissions are currently higher than NOx emissions, but both are decreasing, and projected to keep decreasing.
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Cap and Trade for emissions
goal is to minimize the shifting of production and emissions
done through case by case review
reduces administrative cost to govt and industry
cap on emissions: govt allows fixed quantity of emissions-provides certain allowance market
(The cap on greenhouse gas emissions is a limit backed by science. Companies pay penalties if they exceed the cap, which gets stricter over time.
The trade part is a market for companies to buy and sell allowances that permit them to emit only a certain amount. Trading gives companies a strong incentive to save money by cutting emissions.)
this is monitored
trading: unrestricted-allows companies to choose where they decrease and increase emissions
Companies that cut their pollution faster can sell allowances to companies that pollute more, or “bank” them for future use.
This market – the “trade” part of cap and trade – gives companies flexibility. It increases the pool of available capital to make reductions, encourages companies to cut pollution faster and rewards innovation.
Because there are only so many allowances available, total pollution drops as the cap falls.
lowered acid rain/sulfate deposition by lowering total amount that reaches canada
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UV rays and ozon
UV-C is blocked, UV-B mostly blocked, UV-A gets through ozone
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ozone hole
begins to develop in august, fully developed by early october, broken up in early december
first began to appear in 1980s
there has been a 60% reduction in ozone compared to 1970s
ozone hole associated with cold antarctic stratospheric temperatures
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dobson units
convenient for measuring ozone thickness
the thickness of ozone is about 3mm which is the same as 2 stacked pennies
100 dobson units equal 1 mm so ozone is 300 dobson units
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free chlorine
hazard to ozone in stratosphere
| from chlorofluorocarbons
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chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
used in refrigerants, solvents, medical sterilants, foam blowing
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montreal protocol
enacted many methods to reduce the production and emissions of ozone-depleting chemicals
many revisions made
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bad ozone
ground level ozone formed via a chemical reaction
volatile organic compounds+nitrogen+sunlight->ground level ozone
VOC come from cars and industrial sources
NOx comes from automobiles, buses, power plants
ozone pollution particular concern during summer months when the weather conditions to form it normally occur- lots of sun and hot temps
can cause permanent lung damage, harms plants and ecosystems
hydrocarbons + nitrofen oxides in presence of sunlight
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people at risk from ozone
elderly
children
adults who are active outdoors
people with respiratory diseases
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health effects of ozone pollution
interferes with lung function, aggravates respiratory diseases, causes eye irritation
most common symptom is pain from taking a deep breath
long term exposure to ozone may lead to premature aging of the lungs
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ozone vs other pollutants
ozone has long range effects/long range transport
high ozone levels may be fa from source
other pollutants: highest levels are usually near source
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clean air act of 1990
control industrial precursor emissions
control automotive precursor emissions
to control ozone
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methyl tertiary butyl Ether (MTBE)
used as an additive in gasoline
later found out it was a carcinogen
people complained about it-mostly white males who owned big cars, mean age over 50, and had a long commute, and were very aware of the change to gasoline
others in chicago, esp black did not care/complain
no consistent symptoms found iin the study done to examine this
however, later MTBE was found in the water and other sites- problems with solubility, persistence, low odor/taste threshold for MTBE and turned out to be an animal carcinogen
EPA recomended discontinue use
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Mercury
mined as connabar- it's source
also referred to as inorganic mercury aong with mercury salts
very toxic to nerveous systme,also to kidneys
very poorly absorbed by GI tracts so ingestion poses little risk
inhalation route gives higher exposure
mercury in fillings is toxic
also called "quicksilver"
occurs naturally in soil and in air from volcanic emissiosn
extracted and used
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methylmercury
organic
is far more toxic than other forms and is well absorbed when ingested
can be measured in blood and hair
very slowly eliminated, 1/2 life is 2 to 3 months
inorganic->organic (methyl merc) through biotransformation and then bioaccumulation in fish
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Minamata Bay, Japan
outbreak of polio like disease among coastal fishing villages
stray cats went crazy after eating fish
mercury diagnosed as cause
factory was using and dumping mercury into waters
seafood in bay was contaminated with mercury dumped by facotyr
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minamata disease-infants
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mental retardation
abnormal reflexes
involuntary movements
cerebral palsy
developmental delays-some didn't walk till age 7
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minamata disease-adults
paresthesia-numbness
tremors
convulsions
constriction of visual fields and loss of smell
loss of hearing, dizziness
dysarthia-speech disorder
speech is slow, weak, imprecise, uncoordinated
cognitive impairments-inattention, ecitement, hallucinosis, loss of intelligence
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iraqi seedgrain
mercury compound applied as antifungal agent and sent to iraq for planting but they made bread directly from it
skull and crossbow label were in english and spanish so didn't mean anything
there was dye on the seeds but they washed it off thinking the poison was gone
lead to blindness, deafness, cerebral palsy, abnormal reflexes and muscle tone, retarded motor development
visual and auditory deficits, delayed motor development
birth defects could be due to brief exposure during critical periods of fetal development
affected fetuses may suddenly abort
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mercury effects on brain
decrease brain size
cell loss
disorganization of cells
cell migration failures
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sources of mercury
natural degression of earth
combustion of fossil fuels
industrial discharges and wastes
incineration&crematories
dental amalgams
-asia has highest sources of man-made mercury
-levels higher in long-lived predatory fish
fish levels may also be high due to environmental pollution in specific area
small fish have low levels unless sin polluted water
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Chippewa study
goal was to assess extent of exposure to methyl mercury in high risk population
used 6 tribes
letter, phone call, visit, paid
conclusion: mercury levels in Chippewa are directly related to fish consumption but current mercury levels are below the levels with known health effects
potential exists for substantially increased methyl mercury exposures-if they eat fish more frequently, or from contaminated lakes
recomend: continue current program-monitor fish mercury levels, avoid contaminated lakes, inform tribal members about how to limit mercury levels
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Seychelles
In Indian ocean
| effects of prenatal and postnatal mercury exposure from fish consumption- no effect realted to mercury was found
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Faroe Islands
in Faroe islands, cognitive deficit in 7-year old children with prenatal exposure to methyl mercury studied
outcome on some tests corelated with degree of mercury exposure
also exposed to PCBs from whale meat
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New Zealand and mercury
abnormalities in newborn exams correlated with high maternal mercury levels
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what fish low in mercury
ocean fish lower than lake fish
fish that aren't predators
smaller, pan-sized fish
salmon
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dental amalgams
have high mercury but not affect body
since mercury needs to be inhaled to really affect
adults are also dveloped so less of an affect-subtle changes in brain or kidney
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e-cigs
have nicotine and glycol
lithium ion battery+heating element-vaporizer+mouth piece containing nicotine (also called "e-liquid"
more detailed: cartridge+automization chamber+smart chip controller and lithium battery
have been reported to have toxic chemicals including a cancer causing carcinogen
not currently used for nicotine replacement therapy due to lack of peer reviewed studies
due to insignificant background research, not currently regulated under the indoor clean air act
e-cig use could surpass traditional cigarettes
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atomization chamber
responsible for creating vapor like smoke like a really cigarette
vapor a result from heating up liquid inside the cartridge
atomizer produces vapor when inhaled
gives you the nicotine from smoking really tobacco without the tars
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Nitrogen Dioxide NO2
the main effect of breathing in raised levls of nitrogen dioxide is the increased likelihood of respiratory problems
NO2 inflames the lining of the lungs and it can reduce immunity such as wheezing, coughing, colds, flu and bronchitis
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catalytic converter
a device in the exhaust pipe which converts hydrocarbons, CO into less harmful gases
reduced nitrogen oxides
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sick building syndrome
group of nonspecific (eye, nose, throat irritation, headache, fatigue, nausea etc) associated with occupancy of a sick building; there is an absence of lab and clinical link with specific disease process
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building related illness (BRI)
specific recognized disease entity which is clearly related to chemical infectious or allergic agents in buildings which can be detected by clinical lab tests on patients of identification of source in buildings
