Exam 1 Flashcards
(143 cards)
1
Q
Define “brain” and “behaviour” and are they linked?
A
- brain = a physical object, a living tissue, a body organ
- behaviour = action, observable, but fleeting
- they ARE linked, they have evolved together
2
Q
What are some REASONS to linking the study of the brain to the study of behaviour?
A
- to understand ourselves
- to understand humanity
- for potential treatments for illnesses/disorders
- ex. conduct disorder (seen in the cells of the brain)
3
Q
Why didn’t Finneas Gage die?
A
bc the pole didn’t hit his brain stem
4
Q
What is conduct disorder?
A
- symptoms around violent/destructive behaviour
- ex. stealing, not going to school, killing animals
- can be linked to psychopathy in adults
5
Q
What is the relationship with the amygdala and conduct disorder?
A
- the amygdala is associated with emotional processing
- girls with CD had less gray matter in the amygdala compared to girls w/o CD (girls with CD were less likely to experience/see fear)
6
Q
What is the relationship with the insula and conduct disorder?
A
- the insula is located bw the frontal and temporal lobe
- it is smaller in girls w CD
- the insula is important for processing errors and empathy (hypothesized that a bigger insula = more empathy)
7
Q
What does the word “brain” refer to?
A
the tissue found within the skull
8
Q
What is the cerebrum?
A
- has 2 nearly symmetrical halves called hemispheres - responsible for conscious behaviour whereas the brainstem structures are responsible for unconscious behaviours
9
Q
What does the meaning of the term “brain” refer to?
A
- that which exerts control over behaviour
- signifies both the organ itself and the fact that it produces behaviour
10
Q
Through early ideology, what were the 2 Greek hypotheses?
A
- mental processes are location in the brain (BRAIN HYPOTHESIS)
and - these processes were located in the heart (CARDIAC HYPOTHESIS)
11
Q
Hippocrates and Galen both argued for the brain hypothesis, what were each’s main argument?
A
- they both described aspects of the brain’s anatomy
- Hippocrates: “father of medicine” believed that mental illness related to environment, diet and not sometime mythical
- Galen: pointed out that brain damage impairs function
12
Q
We now accept the brain hypothesis, but the cardiac hypothesis has left its mark. Name some examples of this.
A
- love symbolized as an arrow piercing the heart (i.e. emotion ascribed to the heart)
- feeling “heartbroken”
- “not putting her heart into it”
- “it makes my blood boil”
13
Q
What were Aristotle’s main ideas on the psyche?
A
- first to try to distinguish between the “psyche” (mind) and behaviour
- said the psyche was responsible for human thoughts, perceptions, emotions and processes of imagination, opinion, desire, pleasure
- psyche was found in the heart to produce action, therefore governs behaviour
- no role for the brain, its function was to cool the blood, the passions of the heart
- everything he said about thought he related to the heart
- Galen disagreed entirely
14
Q
What was the significance of the red background cloak in the painting “the creation of adam”?
A
- it looks like a brain
- Michelangelo was the 1st to include anatomy in sculpture
- he also studied human anatomy
15
Q
Describe Descartes’ ideologies.
A
- first to suggest link bw the human mind and its purely physical housing (the brain and to link the mind to the body)
- info comes to the mind through sense organs which relays what’s happening in environment and using this info the mind controls the movements of the body
- interaction bw mind and body takes place in the pineal gland, by means of its movement, which causes pressurized fluid (i.e. ventricular fluid) to flow from brain to sets of nerves making muscles move
- this idea came from observing the movement of statues in the royal gardens in Paris
16
Q
What is the pineal gland?
A
- considered to be the 3rd eye
- the seat of the human soul, capable of mystical powers
- centrally located and bendable at different angles to allow spirits to flow freely
17
Q
Describe Darwin’s ideologies.
A
- thought the best way to understand a biological phenomenon (a behaviour) is to try and understand its useful functions for the organism
- studies animal structure/behaviour. There were characteristics common to so many species despite the diversity. Came to the idea that all living things are related
- diversity could have evolved from common ancestry; traits passed from parents to offspring. But things that aren’t important weren’t passed down (i.e. if an animal as a tail and it isn’t important it won’t evolve/be passed down)
18
Q
Describe Darwin’s idea of natural selection.
A
Species whose characteristics best help them to survive in their environment are likely to leave more offspring. This unequal ability among some members to survive and reproduce leads to gradual changes in that pop. over time
19
Q
What is clinical neuropsychology?
A
- “study of brain-behaviour relationships”
- The application of this knowledge in the assessment and remediation of neurological problems, traumatic brain injury, tumours, neurodegenerative diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, epilepsy…to identify the cognitive, emotional and behavioural consequences of brain dysfunction”
20
Q
Historically, what was a neuropsychologist’s primary purpose? And what did they use tests to do?
A
- primary purpose was to diagnose
- used tests to: identify organic cause, identify site of lesions in brain, 1940/50s neurosurgery
21
Q
What is the Rorschach test?
A
- invented in 1921
- aimed to understand people based on what they see in an ambiguous inkblot
22
Q
What is the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure?
A
- test evaluates visuospatial abilities and memory
- proposed by Andre Rey in 41 and standardized by Paul-Alexandre Osterrieth in 44
- patients copy the figure from memory twice (hits STM and LTM)
- used before and after surgery
23
Q
Is there evidence of organic brain dysfunction?
A
- it is not always possible to diagnose brain dysfunction based on modern tech
- sometimes cognitive impairment is the only indicator of a pathological process
- e.g. Dementia (to diagnsoe the cause of dementia, doc must recognize the pattern of the loss and skills and function and determine what a person is still able to do
24
Q
What are 3 common areas of evaluation for a neuropsychological assessment?
A
- intelligence
- attention and concentration
- language
25
What is the Stroop Test?
- is a phenomenon that occurs when you must say the color of a word but not the name of the word. For example, blue might be printed in red and you must say the color rather than the word
- deals with stimulant cortex (competitive nature between match and mismatch)
- used to assess the ability to inhibit cognitive interference that occurs when the processing of a specific stimulus feature impedes the simultaneous processing of a second stimulus attribute
26
What is the Verbal Comprehension Test?
- tests comprehension
- verbal commands
- have shapes of different sizes and colours and say things like "touch the yellow circle", progressively gets more complicated
27
What was the proposal surrounding relating brain size with behaviour?
- that the relative increase in the size and complexity of brains enables the evolution of more complex behaviours
- a larger brain is needed for increasingly complex behaviour
- from when humanlike creatures first appeared till today, brain size changes (enlarged brains over time) is influenced like climate change, diet, habitat, adapting to change itself primate lifestyle, changes in physiology)
28
Do differences in brain size in individuals correlation with their intelligence?
this is a poor relationship
29
What is the CNS involve?
the brain and spinal cord (which is within the vertebral cavity of the vertebral column)
30
What does the PNS involve?
everything else (on the periphery, beyond brain and spinal cord)
31
Where is Nervous Tissue present and what does it contain?
present in both CNS and PNS. It contains neurons and glial cells.
32
What do glial cells do?
They provide tissues that support neurons and their actions
33
Are glial cells or neurons more functionally important for communicative function?
neurons
34
Describe the parts of a neuron.
1. have a SOMA/CELL BODY and extensions, where each extension is called a PROCESS
2. an important process is an AXON; a fiber that connects a neuron with its target
3. an important process is the DENDRITE; branches off the soma. Responsible for receiving most of the input from other neurons
35
What is the relationship between nervous tissue and gray/white matter?
In nervous tissue, there are regions that largely have cell bodies and regions that largey with just axons. These 2 regions are referred to as gray or white matter.
36
What is gray matter?
- regions with many cell bodies and dendrites
| - not necessarily gray, could be pink (bc blood) or tan (depending on how long its been preserved)
37
What is white matter?
- regions with many axons
38
Why is white matter, white?
- bc axons are insulated by MYELIN (lipid-rich substance). Lipids appear as white "fatty" material.
39
How is the nervous system divided?
into the Somatic nervous system and the Autonomic nervous system
40
What is the somatic nervous system responsible for?
conscious perception and voluntary motor responses
41
Describe the functions of the somatic NS.
- voluntary motor responses is the contraction of skeletal muscle (not always "voluntary" in the sense that you mean to do them)
- somatic motor responses are reflex, w/o a conscious decision (ex. getting scared)
- other motor responses become automatic ("unconscious") as one learns a motor skill; called "habit learning" or "procedural memory"
42
What is the autonomic NS responsible for?
involuntary control of the body, usually for HOMEOSTASIS (regulation of the internal environment)
43
Describe the functions of the autonomic NS.
- sensory input for automatic functions can be from sensory structures tuned to external or internal environment stimuli
- motor output extends to smooth and cardiac muscle
- role is to regulate organ systems (aka control homeostasis)
- ex. sweat glands (sweating from being too hot to cool down not sweating when you're nervous)
44
What were Plato's main contributions?
1. wondered what was at the root of an individual's composition and the origins of "virtue" (was it an acquired trait or an innate quality - "present or absent from birth)
2. believed form and matter were independent things
45
What did Plato lay the groundwork for?
a theory of conscious thought
46
What is the Platonic Viewpoint? (Plato)
ideas, thoughts, and many attributes within ind. were innate, housed w/i the soul and subject to many reincarnations w/i diff. ind.
47
What were Aristotle's main contributions?
1. believed form and matter were the same (disagreed with Plato)
2. we identify most things by the form they take (e.g. a pound of Havarti cheese) rather than simply referring to the object as an element in isolation (e.g. cheese)
3. believed the mind was impermeable to the effects of disease and/or age
48
What did Aristotle believe about death?
the body transformed after death. With death, the soul departed the body
49
What did Aristotle lay the groundwork for?
the philosophy of dualism (which is aspects of the body can be separated from the body)
50
What were Galen's main contributions?
1. studied the anatomy and organization of spinal cord
2. developed theories for treatment of illness
3. proposed bloodletting (removal of blood from various locations to promote well-being)
51
What were Rene Descartes main contributions?
1. concluded the origin of thought lay w/i the ind. but the ideas and beliefs that formulated thoughts are from a higher being
2. mind operated as a separate entity from body (referred to as a "machine")
3. made distinctions bw "learned" and "innate" thoughts and reasoned many ideas/beliefs are not learned, but innately manifested
52
What idea did Descartes come up with following viewing the statues at the Royal Garden in Paris?
the mind, working through the pineal gland, controlled the flow of cerebrospinal fluid that influences nerves to muscles, making them move
53
What did Descartes' ideas change?
how we envisioned the workings of the mind
54
What were Darwin's main contributions?
1. idea that living things must be related/evolving from common ancestors or be of common descent (believed man came from animals as a result of changes in structure/behaviour that developed in adaptation to changing habitats)
2. natural selection
3. new species may emerge as organisms become specialized, adapting to environmental niches
55
What is Darwin's idea of natural selection?
- the process by which the more favourable heritable traits become more common through generations of reproduction and unfavourable traits become less common
- acts on the phenotype (an observable characteristic)
- individuals with favourable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favourable phenotypes. It is the mechanism by which evolution may take place in a population of a specific organism
56
Describe Computerized Tomography (CT).
- fundamental imaging technique
- uses x-ray tech. where thin bands of x-ray beams are systematically passed through the entire brain
- distinctions can be made bw tissue, bone, cerebrospinal fluid and blood bc they all absorb diff. quantities of the emitting x-ray radiation
- one of the least invasive tests but patients are still subject to small amount of radiation
57
What are the main reasons why CT is used?
1. most medical centres have access to a CT scanner (universal access)
2. images can be available in minutes
3. hemorrhages (blood) can be quickly excluded or confirmed as CT is highly sensitive for this purpose
4. CT scan doesn't require contrast dye to be used so there is no concerns over allergies
58
What are the main disadvantages to CT scans?
1. contrast dye is not used so the vascular imaging is limited (further imaging study is needed)
2. certain types of stroke such as posterior (cerebellum) strokes or tumors are difficult to see
59
Describe Positron Emission Technology (PET).
1. circular-shaped imaging structure encases the head of the patient and contains many radiation detectors throughout it
2. ind. given an innocuous radioactive substance (injection or inhalation)
3. substance breaks down rapidly and releases positively charged particles called protons, detected by the PET scanner
4. radioactive substance travels through bloodstream and the concentration levels of the substance reflect the regional blood flow variations in the brain
60
What is the principle of PET?
based on the assumption that increased blood flow is an indication of increased neuronal activity
61
What is the subtraction technique used in PET scans?
- to provide a better indicator of the total activity of the brain at the time of the scan
- allows an examination of the functional changes in the brain as an individual performs different tasks
- provides an inside look at the brain at the same time that a person is performing an experimental task
- difference in blood flow found bw 2 conditions is believed to represent the required blood flow necessary to perform the experimental task
62
Describe Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
1. technique enables the examination of both the structural and functional integrity of the brain
2. the large magnetic force created by the magnetic coils surrounding the cylindrical casing of the machine causes a shifting or aligning of the positive ion (proton) within the hydrogen atom
3. the measured (or recorded) electrical current will vary depending of the density of the tissue, which provides the necessary variant to distinguish one tissue structure from another
63
What is the MRI technique based on?
the principle of disrupting the hydrogen ions that make up water, a substance that is found in varying amounts in all soft tissue
64
Why is an MRI safer compared to a CT scan?
bc it utilizes non-ionizing radiation and it also creates an image with higher resolution
65
What is the neuraxis?
1. imaginary line that separates the body into 2 equal sides
2. in a standing individual, it begins at the top of the head and follows through the chin right down the torso and lower body
66
What does the neuraxis allow us to do?
1. allows distinctions to be made bw the functional ability on one side of the line relative to the other
2. facilitates a separation between identical structures that appear on both sides of the body
a. allows us to compare the structural and functional integrity of 2 identical structures located on both sides
b. any size or functional variability may indicate a possible site of impairment
67
What is Ipsilateral?
a structure that is on the same side of the neuraxis as another structure. Ex; left arm is ipsilateral to left leg
68
What is contralateral?
a structure that is on the opposite side of the neuraxis as another structure. Ex; left eye is contralateral to right eye
69
What is a medially location structure?
structures lying within and directly surrounding the neuraxis
70
What is a lateral structure?
structures lying far away from the neuraxis
71
What is the relationship between the neuraxis and terms ipsilateral and contralateral?
neuraxis enables the localization of 1 structure relative to another structure (same or opposite sides)
72
What is the relationship between the neuraxis and terms medial and lateral?
- structures can be identified relative to their closeness to the neuraxis
- the location of the neuraxis dictates the medial/lateral distinction and proximity to the neuraxis is the determining factor
73
What is the relationship between the neuraxis and terms anterior and posterior?
we can localize structures by determining whether they lie to the front of the head or towards the back
74
What is a anterior structure?
a structure located closer to the front of the head relative to another structure
75
What is a posterior structure?
the structure that lies further away from the front of the head is referred to as the posterior structure
76
Describe dorsal vs ventral.
(picture standing dog)
- structures that lie toward the top and back of the body are dorsal structures
- structures facing the ground (chil through to abdomen) are ventral structures
77
The most exterior brain structures are considered ______ to the structures that lie within the midbrain or hindbrain (brain stem).
dorsal
78
Midbrain structures are ______ to the hindbrain structures.
dorsal
79
What is the meninges?
the brain is encased by the skull bone (tough protective outer layer) but it is also encased within a series of tissue layers, the meninges
80
What are the 3 layers of the meninges?
1. dura meter; most outer layer
2. arachnoid membrane (middle layer)
(idk? subarachnoid space; below the A.M.)
3. pia mater; most inner layer
81
What happens in the subarachnoid space (of the meninges)?
region where cerebrospinal fluid passes through to be filtered
82
Describe the arachnoid membrane.
it has finger like projections that protrude into the S.S. and act as filtration fingers to clean brain fluid (cerebrospinal) of debris
83
What are the features of the pia mater (of the meninges)?
- has thin and flexible bone like composition so it clings to the surface of the brain
- tissue closest to the brain
- find protecting the spinal cord
- rich in blood vessels
- contains the choroid plexus which produces CSF
84
The cerebral spinal fluid that runs through the subarachnoid space is created by the _______ of the ventricular system.
choroid plexus
85
What does cerebral spinal fluid do?
it supports the brain's weight and helps to reduce the impact of shock due to rapid/sudden movements
86
The freeway for the cerebral spinal fluid, the ventricular system is comprised of 4 hollow spaces called ______.
ventricles
87
Where are the 2 lateral ventricles located?
in the centre of the forebrain
88
Where is the 3rd ventricle located?
in the midbrain
89
Where is the 4th ventricle located?
in the hindbrain
90
The 3rd and 4th ventricles are connected by a narrow tube called the ______?
cerebral aqueduct
91
What are the 6 principle cortices the brain is divided into?
1. frontal cortex
2. temporal cortex
3. parietal cortex
4. occipital cortex
5/6. motor and somatosensory cortical strips
92
What are fissures?
the different cortical areas are outlined by specific anatomical markers called fissures, deep grooves called sulci within the surface of the cortex
93
What does the lateral fissure do?
it separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobe
94
What does the calcarine fissure do?
provides a distinction from the upper lying parietal lobe
| - (it's surrounded by the primary visual cortex)
95
What does the central sulcus do?
it separates the frontal cortex from the parietal cortex, provides the boundary for the motor cortex (which lies anterior to it and the somatosensory cortex, which lies posterior to the central sulcus)
96
In brain imaging, what is the purpose of electrical recording?
to detect changes in the electrical activity of neurons
97
In brain imaging, what is the purpose of brain stimulation?
to induce changes in the electrical activity of the brain
98
What does the nervous system break down into?
CNS and Peripheral NS
99
What does the CNS break down into?
brain and spinal cord
100
What does the PNS break down into?
autonomic and somatic
101
What does autonomic break down into?
parasympathetic (calming) and sympathetic (arousing)
102
What makes up the diencephalon?
thalamus, hypothalamus and subthalamus
103
____ seperates the temporal from frontal and parietal lobes.
lateral fissure
104
The forebrain is composed of the cerebral hemispheres, what seperates these sides?
corpus callosum
105
What are the cerebral ventricles?
hollow chambers in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
106
Each of the cerebral ventricles have a capillary network called what? And what is it?
the choroid plexus. It is a protective barrier make up of ependymal cells (these cells produce the CSF). The amount you're making is equivalent to the amount that is being reabsorbed
107
What is the hydrocephalus?
a neurological condition. When circulation or reabsorption of the CSF is blocked, it builds up and causes a lot of injuries to the brain
108
The thalamus lies on either side of the ____ ventricle.
third
109
The lateral ventricle can be seen just below the ____.
corpus callosum
110
In the anterior part of the brain the structures seen in a frontal section are the _______.
Basal Ganglia. Which is a set of functionally related nuclei.
111
What are 2 important basal ganglia nuclei?
the caudate and putamen. Involved in voluntary movement.
112
What 3 layers makes up the cranial and spinal meninges?
dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater
113
What is a focal injury?
hurting one area of the brain
114
What is a diffuse injury?
more widespread injury to brain
115
Describe a mild head injury.
- may or have not lost consciousness
- Also looking if someone has suffered post traumatic amnesia to see how intense the injury or accident was/is
- Brief in mild injury or no loss of consciousness or PTA
116
Describe a moderate head injury.
- You can lose consciousness up to a few hrs (more than 30min less than a day)
- PTA it can happen but relatively brief (might be a day and less than a week)
117
Describe a severe head injury.
- Could be someone who is unconscious and in a coma- more than 24 hrs
- No memory of time before or time after PTA more than a week, and a lot of time people have gaps in their memory
- Herniation (Look at midline or ventricle, it’s pushed to one side of the brain instead of one side)
118
What is a subdural hematoma?
- Between the arachnoid membrane and the skull, affecting the second layer of the meninges
- Blood in CSF
119
What is a intracerebral hemorrhage?
- Blood vessel burst
| - Bleeding right in the tissue itself
120
What is an epidural hematoma?
- Blood build up between the brain and the dura mater
| - Blood vessels have been broken
121
What is meningitis?
- An infection within the tissue itself
- Inflammation
- Whenever you get a build up of blood you are putting pressure on the brain tissue
- Related to CSF
- Bacteria, fungi, viruses can all cause inflammation in the mengies layers
- If not treated and quickly the person can develop seizures and brain damage
122
Who is Clyde Waring?
- famous composer, developed a virus in the brain
- Damaged temporal lobe and areas related to said lobe
- Only remember his wife
- Only remembers 11 secs
- Can play the piano beautifully
123
What is a stroke?
- sudden death of tissue, caused by a lack of oxygen
| - disrupt blood flow
124
What are the 2 major categories of strokes and explain them.
1. Ischemic stroke: results when there is inadequate blood flow, partial or complete occlusion of the artery, 80% of strokes
2. Hemorrhagic stroke: about 15%, bleeding into brain tissues, blood vessel rupture (aneurysm), intracerebral hemorrhaging, more dangerous
125
Describe the hindbrain.
- develops first
- main function is life support (breathing, heart rate)
- three areas: reticular formation, pons, medulla and cerebellum
126
Describe the midbrain.
- main function: "relay stations" (coordinates sensory info)
- sends and receives info, related to sensory materials
- substantia nigra
127
Describe the forebrain.
- main function: "higher" mental processes
- does not fully developed until late teens early twenties
- most complex
- last area to develop
128
What is the medulla?
- part of hindbrain
- involved in vital functions
- breathing
- if damaged can die, can be instantaneous
129
What is the pons?
- part of hindbrain
- rely station that acquires info from cerebellum and projects into to the brain material itself
- sensory, motor, balance info
130
What is the reticular formation?
- part of hindbrain
- behind the pons
- related to arousal and wakefulness
- sleep wake cycles
131
What is the cerebellum?
- part of hindbrain
- connected to your frontal cortex
- planning related changes
Cerebellum over time has been given more rules (when you drink too much, wobbly)
(Doesn’t control movement directly but it is an intercorrelated network)
132
What is the tectum?
- part of midbrain
- is the roof of this area, like a tissue or lining and connects to the fourth ventricle
- Supports the structures in that area
- Defines the midbrain
- receives sensory info from the eyes and the ears
- superior and inferior colliculus
- Cells of tissue: Colliculus (also helps orientening you to the space around you)
133
What is the substantia nigra?
- part of midbrain
- important for initiating movements
- see it when we talk about Parkinson's
- that area relates to initiation and movement (loss of dopamine in this part of the brain)
134
What is the optic nerve?
- large bundle of fibres that go to the superior colliculus (vision)
135
Where is the auditory pathway?
- inferior colliculus (auditory information)
136
What is the cerebral cortex?
- part of the forebrain
- cortex makes up the forebrain (heavy folds)
- nearly 2 symmetrical lobes (each have 4 structures/lobes)
- 6 layers of tissue, most grey matter
137
What is the limbic system?
- part of the forebrain
- over the corpus callosum
- in every single lobe
- involved in vision, memory, emotions, sex (hits all the areas)
138
What is the thalamus?
- part of the forebrain
| - a relay station sensory info
139
What is the hypothalamus?
- part of the forebrain
- reduction of hormones
- interacts with pituitary gland
- involved in sleep, sexual behaviour, temperature regulation
140
What is the basal ganglia and where is it located?
- located in the forebrain
- a group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen, important parts of the motor system
- Input to the basal ganglia is from the primary motor cortex and the substantia nigra
- Output of the basal ganglia is to
- Primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex
141
What is the cortical-basal ganglia loop?
- 1970s by Alexander
- Frontal cortex send axons to caudate/putamen
- Caudate/putamen projects to the globus pallidus
- Globus pallidus projects back to motor cortex via thalamic nuclei
142
What are the parts of the cerebral cortex, what is it divided into?
- has left/right hemispheres
- divided into 2 lobes
* frontal: planning, decision making, personality
* parietal: processing sensations of touch, temperature, pain, somatic sensory strip
* temporal lobes: auditory processing, speech, language comprehension (left hemisphere)
* occipital lobes: vision
143
Who is William Hempfield?
- in the 40s
- Famous neurosurgeon
- Did surgeries on people who had seizures and epilepsy
- Stimulated diff areas of the brain
- Topographic mapping developed, to identify diff areas of the brain
- Where we get the homunculus, organized representation of the body
