Exam 1 Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
What are the 8 chief cellular functions
A
movement conductivity metabolic absorption secretion excretion respiration reproduction communication
2
Q
what represents approximately half the volume of the eukaryotic cell
A
cytoplasm
3
Q
cytosol is the storage unit for (3)
A
fat, carbohydrates, and secretory vesicles
4
Q
define amphipathic
A
one side is hydrophobic and the other is hydrophilic
5
Q
membrane proteins which are exposed on both sides of the membrane
A
transmembrane proteins
6
Q
proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core and can be removed by dissolving the bilayer with detergent
A
integral membrane proteins
7
Q
proteins which can be removed from the membrane by gentle procedures and do not penetrate the hydrophobic core
A
peripheral membrane proteins
8
Q
Three categories of proteins that make up the ECM
A
structural proteins, adhevise glycoproteins, and proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid
9
Q
two examples of structural proteins
A
collagen and elastin
10
Q
one example of adhesive protein
A
fibronectin
11
Q
Tight junctions - description and example
A
form a tight seal between cells
Nephrons
Blood/teste barrier
12
Q
Desmosomes/adherens junctions
A
strong, mechanical, yet flexible junctions between cells (similar to velcro)
bladder, GI tract
13
Q
gap junctions
A
clusters of tunnels between two neighboring cells
cells in the heart (allow calcium to go from one cell to another)
14
Q
define homeostasis
A
maintaining internal consistency
15
Q
6 types of cell signaling/communication
A
contact-dependent paracrine autocrine hormonal/endocrine neurohormonal neurotransmitter
16
Q
what type of metabolic pathway is cellular respiration?
A
catabolic
17
Q
three macromolecules that can be broken down and used for cellular respiration and what is preferred
A
proteins, polysaccharides, and fats.
polysaccharides preferred
18
Q
6 types of membrane transport
A
active passive mediated diffusion osmosis filtration
19
Q
Define:
Symport, Antiport, and Uniport
A
symport - two molecules move simultaneously in the same direction
antiport - two molecules move simultaneously in opposite directions
uniport - one molecule moves in one direction
20
Q
in all body cells, the inside of the cell is more _____ charged than the outside
A
negatively
21
Q
typical resting membrane potential (in mV)
A
-70 to -85 mV
22
Q
the threshold potential is typically ____ mV greater than the resting membrane potential
A
15 to 20
23
Q
define hyperpolarized (charge, type of stimulus required to elicit action potential, and more or less excitable?)
A
charge is more negative than normal
a stronger stimulus than normal is required
less excitable
24
Q
define hypopolarized (charge, type of stimulus required to elicit action potential, and more or less excitable?)
A
charge is more positive than normal
a weaker stimulus than normal is required
more excitable
25
what are the four designated phases of the cells cycle?
S phase, G2, M phase, G1
26
another name for growth factors is ___
cytokines
27
four types of epithelial tissue
simple squamous
transitional
simple columnar
stratified columnar
28
eight types of connective tissue
```
loose/areolar
dense, regular
dense, irregular
elastic
adipose
cartilage
bone
blood
```
29
three types of muscle tissue
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
30
the fourth type of tissue, in addition to epithelial, connective, and muscle is _____
nervous
31
the two pyrimidines are
cytosine and thymine
32
the two purines are
adenine and guanine
33
three basic components of DNA
sugar, phosphate, base
34
difference between gametes and somatic cells
gametes are haploid and produced via meiosis; somatic cells are diploid and produced via mitosis
35
difference between autosomes and sex chromosomes
autosomes are homologous in males and females; sex chromosomes are not
36
define polyploidy
cells have a multiple that is more than the normal number of chromosomes
37
define aneuploidy
a cell has more or fewer copies of a chromosome
38
which four chromosomes can have trisomy and result in live birth?
13, 18, 21, and X
39
Down's syndrome
Trisomy 21; intellectual disability, poor muscle tone, and congenital heart disease
40
Turner's syndrome
monosomy of X; short stature, webbed neck, and usually sterile
41
Klinefelter's syndrome
XXY condition; mental impairment may be present, male in appearance but usually sterile, and may develop breasts
42
clastogens
harmful agents that increase the risk of chromosome breakage during mitosis (ionizing radiation, viral infections, some types of chemicals, etc.)
43
cri du chat syndrome
disease caused by deletion; low birth weight and severe intellectual disability
44
fragile sites
areas on the chromosome that develop distinctive breaks and gaps
45
fragile X syndrome
due to fragile site on long arm of X chromosome; intellectual disability, females can be carriers, but 1/3 of carriers are also affected
46
define epigenetics
change in phenotype expression that doesn't involve DNA mutation or changes in nucleotide sequence
47
three mechanisms by which epigenetics is thought to occur
DNA methylation
Histone modificatino
RNA-based mechanisms
48
DNA methylation
a methyl group is attached to a cytosine; this will block access by transcription factor, thereby inhibiting gene expression
49
Histone modification
can upregulate or downregulate gene expressing by either adding or deleting and acetyl group to the end of a histone protein, thereby tightening or loosening
50
RNA-based mechanisms
noncoding RNAs base pair with messenger RNA to block translation by ribosome
51
totipotency
has the potential to give rise to a somatic cell of any type
52
which epigenetic mechanism is thought to influence totipotent differentiation?
DNA methylation
53
pluripotency
can give rise to any somatic cell, but not placenta
54
housekeeping genes
genes that are necessary for the function and maintenance of ALL cells; remain transcriptionally active in nearly all cells
55
biallelic gene expression
both maternal and paternal allele types contribute to phenotype
56
monoallelic expression
the maternal allele is randomly chosen for inactivation in some cell, and the paternal allele is randomly chosen for inactivation in other cells
57
imprinting
either the copy inherited through the sperm or egg is inactivated and remains so in all of the somatic cells
58
Prader-Willis vs. Angelman Syndrome
Prader-Willis: deletion on chromosome 15 is inherited from the father. Results in obesity, short stature, and mild to moderate intellectual disability.
Angelman: deletion on chromosome 15 is inherited from the mother. Results in severe intellectual disability, seizures, and ataxic gate
59
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
two copies of paternal chromosome 11 are inherited, and no maternal copies. Results in over-expression of IGF2, producing increased levels of insulin-like growth factor 2 during fetal development, which results in overgrowth features at birth and beyond.
60
define adaptation
a reversible, structural, or functional response to physiological or pathological conditions
61
define atrophy and give physiological and pathological example
a decrease in cells size
occurs with early development when the thymus gland undergoes atrophy during childhood
a result of decreased workload, pressure, use, blood supply, nutrition, hormonal stimulation, and nervous system stimulation
62
define hypertrophy and give physiological and pathological example
an increase in cell size in response to mechanical stimuli
result of moderate endurance training, pregnancy, early phases of increased pressure and volume loading in the heart
secondary to hypertension, coronary heart disease, or problem valves
63
define hyperplasia and give physiological and pathological example
increase in the number of cells, resulting from an increased rate of cellular division
enables certain organs (like liver) to regenerate; hormonal hyperplasia in breasts and uterus
pathologic endometric hyperplasia (causes excessive menstrual bleeding)
64
define dysplasia
abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells (aka atypical hyperplasia)
65
define metaplasia and give pathological example
the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another, sometimes less differentiated, cell type
replacement of normal columnar ciliated epithelial cells by stratified squamous in the bronchial lining due to smoking
66
how is cellular injury different than adaptation
the cell is unable to maintain homeostasis
67
define hypoxic
lack of sufficient oxygen within cells (most common type of cellular injury)
68
define ischemia
reduced blood supply, usually due to narrowing arteries or blood clots
69
define infarction
tissue death due to ischemia
70
define anoxia
complete lack of oxygen to the brain; acute, cause by a sudden obstruction
71
define free radical
atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron, looking to react with anything
72
source of free radicals
ROS
73
free radicals play a role in what diseases?
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and aging
74
define asphyxia and give the 5 subcategories
failure of cells to receive or use oxygen
suffocation, choking, strangulation, chemical asphyxiation, drowning
75
mechanical injury resulting in tearing, shearing, or crushing
blunt-force
76
four subcategories of blunt-force injury
contusion, laceration, abrasion, fracture
77
cutting and piercing injuries
sharp-force
78
four categories of sharp-force injury
incised wound, stab wound, puncture, chopping
79
six types of necrosis
```
coagulative
liquefactive
caseous
fatty
gangrenous
gas gangrene
```
80
coagulative necrosis
lack of oxygen
81
liquefactive necrosis
brain tissue is converted to liquid
82
caseous necrosis
lungs become cheese-like
83
fatty necrosis
digestive enzymes destroy tissue in pancreas, fat, and abdomen
84
gangrenous necrosis
cause by lack of blood supply to tissue; can be wet (seeping) or dry
85
gas gangrene
gangrene in response to bacteria (clostridium); fast spread via infection
86
algor mortis
drop in body temperature
87
livor mortis
blood pools to lowest point of the body; visible around two hours after death
88
rigor mortis
muscles contract/stiffen due to actin and myosin locking together because there's no new oxygen; occurs around 4-6 hours after death
89
define anaplasia
loss of cellular differentiation
90
define cancer
disease in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues
91
define clonal selection/expansion
the selective of cancer cells over neighboring cells; cancer cell progeny can accumulate faster than non-mutant neighbors
92
define metastasis
the spread of cancer cells from the site of original tumor to distant tissues and organs. The major cause of death from cancer
93
define neoplasia
the formation or presence of a new, abnormal growth of tissue
94
define oncogene
cancer phenotype accelerator; direct the synthesis of proteins which promote proliferation
95
define pleiomorphic
cells have a marked variability of size and shape. Malignant cells are pleiomorphic
96
define tumor
tissue that grown unchecked; can be palpitated
97
define tumor-suppressive gene
serve as brakes on proliferation; encode proteins to halt proliferation in some way
98
features of benign tumors
well-encapsulated and contain well-differentiated cells and well-organized stroma; retain normal tissue structure and do not invade beyond tissue capsule
99
feature of malignant tumors
rapid growth rates and loss of differentiation (anaplasia); absence of normal tissue organization; pleiomorphic
100
carcinoma
cancer of epithelial tissue
101
adenocarcinoma
cancer of ductal or glandular epithelial tissue
102
leukemia
cancer of blood-forming cells
103
lymphoma
cancer of lymphatic tissue
104
sarcoma
cancer of connective tissue, including muscle and bone
105
Carcinoma in situ (CIS)
preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin; localized to epithelium and have not penetrated the local basement membrane
106
progession of CIS
remain stable for long time, progress to cancer, or regress and disappear
107
where does CIS frequently occur
cervix, skin, oral cavity, esophagus, and bronchus
108
four major characteristics of transformed cells
genetic instability, lack of contact inhibition, immortalization, and anchorage independence
109
three way proto-oncogenes are transformed into oncogenes
point mutation
chromosome translocation
epigenetic changes
110
define caretaker genes
genes that are responsible for the maintenance of genomic stability/integrity
111
ten hallmarks of cancer
```
sustained proliferative signaling
evasion of growth suppression signals
genomic instability
enable replicative immortality
induce and sustain angiogenesis (increase in blood supply)
reprogram energy metabolism
resist apoptotic cell death
support tumor-promoting inflammation
avoidance of immune destruction
promote invasion and metastasis
```
