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HAN 200 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy and Physiology

A

the study of structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)

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2
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • everything happens for a reason
  • maintaining a stable internal environment
  • some systems push us out of homeostasis and other push us back in
  • the presence of a stable internal environment
  • illness or death occurs when homeostasis is not maintained
  • the foundation of physiology
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3
Q

Complementarity

A
  • structure and function go hand in hand
  • ex. shape of bone -> direction in which joints move
  • ex. shape of protein -> protein binding
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4
Q

Gross Anatomy

A
  • macroscopic anatomy
  • regional anatomy- studying the anatomy in a certain region of the body
  • systemic anatomy- studying anatomy by body system
  • surface anatomy- studying anatomical features on the surface of the body
  • anything you can see with the naked eye
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5
Q

Microscopic Anatomy

A
  • requires magnification to see
  • cytology- study of cells
  • histology- study of tissues
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6
Q

Developmental Anatomy

A

-embryology- the way human beings develop

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7
Q

All living things preform these basic functions

A
  • maintain boundaries- between external and internal environment
  • movement- internal and external
  • responsiveness- to stimuli
  • digestion- take in and break down nutrients
  • metabolism- use nutrients for chemical reactions that take place internally
  • excretion- rid of waste
  • reproduction- continuation of species
  • Growth
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8
Q

Survival needs of living organisms

A
  • nutrients
  • oxygen
  • water
  • normal body temp
  • stable atmosphere pressure
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9
Q

Levels of Organization

A
  • chemical level- atoms that form molecules
  • Cellular level
  • Tissue level
  • Organ level
  • Organ system level
  • Organism
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10
Q

Cells: The smallest Unit of Life

A
  • the structural building blocks of all plants and animals
  • produced by the division of pre-existing cells
  • all living organisms are comprised of one or more cells
  • the smallest structural units that perform all vital functions
  • trillions of cells in the body of 200 varieties
  • shape and size relate to their specific functions
  • the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their SHAPE and NUMBER
  • continuity of life from generation to generation has a cellular basis
  • two types of cells: sex cells and somatic
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11
Q

Smooth muscle cells

A
  • contracts and shorten to produce movement
  • skinny long
  • fiber appearance
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12
Q

blood cells

A
  • certain size so they can pass through
  • looks like a squished ball
  • carry oxygen
  • because blood cell is flattened it is easier for the oxygen to leave the cell to the tissue
  • no nucleus because it allows RBC to carry more oxygen
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13
Q

Bone cells

A
  • has rigid structures coming off of it
  • this allows the bone cells to lock in place
  • makes them more sturdy
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14
Q

fat cells

A
  • energy reserves
  • large giant bubbles
  • store energy
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15
Q

Digestive tract cells

A
  • surface of the cells that face the digestive system
  • micro villi- absorb
  • more nutrients can be absorbed
  • more surface area
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16
Q

nerve cells

A
  • neurons
  • conduct impulses
  • a lot of branches in order to conduct impulses
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17
Q

Tissues: Specialized groups of cells

A
  • a group of cells performing specific functions
  • cells + extracellular material and fluids
  • four primary tissue type:
  • epithelial tissue
  • connective tissue
  • muscle tissue
  • neural tissue
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18
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

cover and protects exposed surfaces (skin)

  • lines internal passageways (tracts)
  • produces glandular secretions
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19
Q

Connective tissue

A
  • fills internal spaces
  • provides structural support
  • stores energy (adipose)
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20
Q

Muscle tissue

A
  • long and skinny because of contraction and movement
  • 3 types:
  • cardiac muscle- striated
  • skeletal muscle- striated
  • smooth muscle
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21
Q

skeletal muslce

A
  • voluntary- you can move them on your own
  • striated- visible bands on them
  • attaches bone to bone
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22
Q

cardiac muscle

A
  • striated- visible bands on them
  • only found in the heart
  • involuntary
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23
Q

smooth mucle

A
  • non-striated
  • involuntary
  • found in the walls of blood vessels because they constrict and dilate
  • also found in walls of hollow organs
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24
Q

neural tissue

A
  • conducts electrical impulses
  • carries information
  • regulate everything
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25
Q

organ systems

A
  • organ- functional unit composed of more than one tissue type
  • organ system- organs interacting to perform a specific range of function
  • there are 11 interdependent organ systems in the body (immune system not counted)
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26
Q

integumentary system

A
  • skin
  • forms the external body covering
  • protects deeper tissues from injury
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27
Q

endocrine system

A
  • glands
  • regulatory system
  • releases chemical messages into the blood (hormones)
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28
Q

nervous system

A
  • regulatory
  • fast acting
  • sends impulses
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29
Q

lymphatic system

A
  • works with immune system

- filters out fluid in blood

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30
Q

11 systems

A
  • nervous- regulatory
  • endocrine- regulatory
  • excretory
  • muscular
  • skeletal
  • digestive
  • reproductive
  • respiratory
  • lymphatic
  • integumentary
  • circulatory
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31
Q

Homeostatic Regulation

A

the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

  • blood pH
  • temperature
  • Receptor- specialized cells that detect change and send a signal to the control center
  • control center- (brain) sends a command out to effector cells
  • effector- carry out the change in order to maintain homeostatsis
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32
Q

Negative Feeback

A
  • the primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation
  • provides long term control over the body’s internal conditions and systems
  • negates the change in order to maintain homeostasis
  • receptor stimulation triggers a response that changes the environment at the receptor
  • control center activates an effector that negates the original stimulus
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33
Q

Increase in body Temperature Example

A
  • Receptors send signal to brain (hypothalamus) that temperature is too high
  • control center (hypothalamus) sends the command to sweat to the effectors
  • effectors- (sweat glands and smooth muscle) release heat by sweating and dilating blood vessels on the surface of the skin so heat can leave the body
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34
Q

Decrease in body temperature example

A
  • receptors send signal to the brain (hypothalamus) that temperature is too low
  • control center (hypothalamus) sends a command to the effectors to shiver
  • effectors- (skeletal muslces) involuntary contractions of the skeletal muscles in order to generate heat
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35
Q

Afferent

A

-going towards something

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36
Q

Efferent

A

-going away from something

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37
Q

Why would your body purposely raise or lower body temperature

A
  • fever or infection
  • speeds up physiological responses
  • microorganisms wont work as well in high temperature
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38
Q

positive feeback

A
  • ACCELERATES a process to completion
  • initial stimulus produces a response that ENHANCES the change in the original condition
  • produces extreme response
  • found when a dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly
  • much less common that negative feedback
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39
Q

Positive feedback examples

A
  • platelets multiply until the condition is resolved (blood loss)- forming a blood clot
  • child birth- smooth muscle in wall of uterus stretch out and releases hormones that allow the uterus to start to contract until baby comes out
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40
Q

Arthro

A

having to do with joints

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41
Q

Cardio

A

having to do with heart

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42
Q

Chondro

A

having to do with cartilage

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43
Q

derm

A

having to do with skin

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44
Q

hemo

A

blood

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45
Q

histo

A

having to do with tissues

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46
Q

hyper

A

above

-high levels

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47
Q

hypo

A

below

-low levels

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48
Q

leuk

A

white

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49
Q

myo

A

muscle

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50
Q

neuro

A

nervous systerm

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51
Q

ology

A

study of

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52
Q

osteo

A

having to do with bones

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53
Q

path

A

disease

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54
Q

physio

A

function

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55
Q

pulmo

A

lungs

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56
Q

sub

A

above

  • direction
  • physcial
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57
Q

super

A

below

  • direction
  • physical
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58
Q

anatomical positoin

A
  • palms facing forward
  • anterior- palms of the hand
  • feet together
  • standing
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59
Q

cephalic

A

anything to do with the head

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60
Q

frontal

A

forehead area

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61
Q

orbital

A

around the eyes

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62
Q

mental

A

chin area

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63
Q

cervical

A

neck region

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64
Q

thorax

A

chest area

  • sternal- midline
  • axillary- armpit area
  • mammary- around the nipple area
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65
Q

abdominal

A
  • stomach region
  • umbilicus- belly button
  • umbilical- belly button area
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66
Q

pelvic

A
  • around pelvis area

- inguinal- pubic region

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67
Q

acromial

A

-top of shoulder

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68
Q

brachial

A

upper arm

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69
Q

oleoranal

A

back of elbow

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70
Q

antibrachial

A

forearm

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71
Q

carpel

A

wrist

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72
Q

manus

A

hand

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73
Q

pollax

A

thumb

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74
Q

metacarpel

A

area before fingers

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75
Q

coxal

A

hip region

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76
Q

femoral

A

thigh

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77
Q

patellar

A

-front of knee

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78
Q

popliteal

A

back of knee

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79
Q

fibular

A

out part of leg

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80
Q

pedal

A

having to do with feet

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81
Q

tarsal

A

ankle

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82
Q

otic

A

ears

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83
Q

occiptal

A

back of head

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84
Q

lumbar

A

-low back

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85
Q

sacral

A

above butt

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86
Q

perineal

A

between genital and anus

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87
Q

abdominopevlic quadrants

A
  • right upper quadrant- liver, gallbladder, large and small intestine
  • left upper quadrant- stomach, spleen
  • right lower quadrant- appendix, urinary bladder, reproductive
  • left lower quadrant- reproductive, urinary bladder
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88
Q

abdominopevlic region

A
  • right hypochondriac region- upper - below rib cartilage
  • epigastric region- upper middle- stomach
  • left hypochondriac region- upper region- below rib cartilage
  • Right lumbar region- middle
  • umbilical region- middle- surrounds belly button
  • left lumbar region- middle
  • right inguinal region- lower
  • hypogastric (pubic) region- lower middle
  • left inguinal region- lower
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89
Q

cranial

A

moving towards head

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90
Q

caudal

A

moving towards the tail

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91
Q

anterior or ventral

A

towards the front of the body

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92
Q

posterior or dorsal

A

towards the back of the body

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93
Q

superior

A

above

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94
Q

inferior

A

below

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95
Q

medial

A

towards the midline

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96
Q

lateral

A

further away from the midline

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97
Q

proximal

A
  • only use for extremedies

- closer to the point of origin

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98
Q

distal

A
  • further away from point of origin

- only use for extremedies

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99
Q

frontal plane or coronal plane

A
  • anterior and posterior

- divides front and back

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100
Q

Transverse plane

A
  • superior and inferior

- divides top and bottom

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101
Q

Sagital plane

A
  • divides left and right

- does not have to be down the middle

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102
Q

midsagital plane or median plane

A

-divides the left and right side of the body straight down the middle

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103
Q

body cavities

A

spaces in the body that contains vital organs

  • aligned by thin membranes that fold over and sit on top of organs that are in the body cavity
  • dorsal and ventral body cavity
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104
Q

dorsal body cavity

A
  • cranial cavity- contains brain

- vertebral cavity- contains spinal cord

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105
Q

ventral body cavity

A
  • divide at diaphragm
  • thoracic cavity- contains heart and lungs, above diaphragm
  • abdominal cavity- stomach liver, pancreas, spleen
  • pelvic cavity- contains bladder, reproductive, and rectum
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106
Q

thoracic cavity

A
  • in the ventral body cavity
  • contains the left and right pleural cavities- contain lungs
  • pericardial cavity- contains the heart
  • superior mediastinum- above the pericardial and in between pleural cavities
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107
Q

serous membrane (serosa)

A

double layered membrane that lines body cavities and covers the viceral organs

  • parietal serosa
  • visceral serosa
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108
Q

parietal serosa

A

lines the body cavity

-outer layer

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109
Q

visceral serosa

A

when the membrane folds over and sit on the organ

  • covers organs in the cavity
  • inner layer
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110
Q

serous fluid

A
  • secreted by both membranes
  • provides lubrication between the layers (visceral serosa, parietal serosa)
  • reduces friction
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111
Q

Energy

A

the capacity to do work (put matter in motion)

  • exists in two forms:
  • potential energy- stored, inactive energy
  • kinetic energy- active energy, moves objects
  • other forms of energy:
  • chemical- stored in bonds
  • electrical- movement of charged particles
  • mechanical- directly moves matter
  • radiant (electromagnetic)- travels in waves
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112
Q

matter

A
  • occupies space and has mass
  • mass- equal to the amount of matter in an object, similar to weight, remains constant regardless of gravity
  • matter exists in 3 states:
  • solid- definite shape and volume
  • liquid- definite volume, no definite shape
  • gas- no definite shape or volume
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113
Q

the composition of matter

A
  • elements cannot not be broken down into simpler substances by regular chemical means
  • ex. oxygen, carbon, iron, copper
  • *C, O, H and N make up 96% of body weight
  • atoms- identical particles that make up each element (building blocks of elements)
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114
Q

atoms

A
  • the smallest stable unit of matter
  • composed of subatomic particles
  • protons- positive electrical charge-
  • neutrons- electrically neutral
  • electrons- negative charge, much smaller
  • subdivided into its nucleus and electron cloud
  • nucleus- contains protons and neutrons
  • electron cloud- electrons around the nucleus
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115
Q

atomic number

A

number of protons in the nucleus

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116
Q

atomic mass

A

amount of protons and neutrons together

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117
Q

molecules

A

forms when atoms interact and produce larger more complex structures

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118
Q

element

A

pure substance containing only atoms of the same atomic number

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119
Q

isotopes

A

atoms of a single element with differing number of neutrons

-still same element and atomic number but different weight (atomic mass)

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120
Q

oxygen

A

65%

-most abundant element in the body weight because of water

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121
Q

carbon

A

18% of body weight

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122
Q

Hydrogen

A

10% of body weight

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123
Q

Nitrogen

A

3.2% of body weight

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124
Q

Calcium

A

1.8 of body weight

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125
Q

14 trace elements present in small amounts

A

<1% of body weight

-P,K,Na,Cl,Mg,S,Fe,I

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126
Q

molecules and compounds

A
  • most atoms are linked with other atoms
  • held together by chemical bonds
  • molecules- smallest units of an element or compound (same atoms in an element: ex. O2)
  • compound- atoms of different elements combine (ex. 1 molecule of the compound water: H2O)
  • mixture- 2 or more components intermixed (SOLUTIONS (homogenous mixture), COLLOIDS (heterogenous mixture(emulsion)), SUSPENSIONS (heterogenous with large solutes))
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127
Q

electrons and energy levels

A
  • 2, 8, 8
  • 1st electron shell has the lowest energy level
  • reactive elements- unfilled outer energy level want to react in order to fill it
  • stability by gaining, losing or sharing electrons
  • inert elements do not react with other atoms because they are already filled shells
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128
Q

Lithium

A
  • has one electron in second shell
  • rather than find 7 other electrons to fill its shell it would rather give one up
  • +1
  • an atom like chlorine (7 electrons in its outer shell) would gain this electron -> -1
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129
Q

ions

A
  • cations- positive charge
  • anions- negatively charge
  • when these come together they form ionic bonds
  • Sodium loses an electron to Cl -> ionic bond -> NaCl
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130
Q

covalent bonds

A
  • sharing of outer shell electrons
  • strong bond
  • single and double covalent bonds
  • double bonds share two electrons
  • polar covalent bonds- unequal sharing of electrons -> partial charges
  • non-polar covalent bonds- equal sharing of electrons
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131
Q

water and hydrogen bonds

A
  • bonds between water molecules are hydrogen bonds due to the polarity within the water molecule
  • hydrogen bonds are not strong
  • if you put ionic compound into water the waters polarity can break ionic bonds (solubility)
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132
Q

chemical reactions

A
  • cells function by forming new chemical bonds between atoms or breaking existing bonds
  • reactants form products
  • metabolism- all of body reactions at any given moment
  • factors that affect rate of chemical reactions:
  • temperature- increase temperature -> increases rxn
  • concentration- increase concentration -> increase rxn
  • particle size- smaller particle size (faster) -> increase rxn
  • catalysts (enzymes)- increase enzymes (decrease activation energy) -> increase rxn
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133
Q

decomposition reactions

A
  • take something large and break it into smaller parts
  • catabolism
  • hydrolysis- uses water -> split the water so it can react with the reactants
  • ex. digestion, absorption
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134
Q

synthesis reactions

A
  • take smaller molecules and assemble them into larger ones
  • dehydration synthesis- form water and remove it from the reaction
  • anabolism
  • always involved the formation of new bonds
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135
Q

exchange reactions

A
  • reactants shuffled to produce new products
  • decomposition- first reactants break apart
  • synthesis- then interact and form new products
  • AB+CD->AD+CB
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136
Q

chemical reactions are reversible

A
  • many important biological reactions are freely reversible
  • two reactions occurring simultaneously- one synthesis and one decomposition
  • equilibrium- the same rates for both reactions
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137
Q

activation energy

A

the amount of energy required before a reaction can proceed

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138
Q

enzymes

A
  • proteins used by cells to lower the activation energy requirements
  • lower activation energy
  • have specificity
  • saturation limits- no more reaction will be produced if there are no more enzymes
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139
Q

catalysts

A

enzymes and other compounds that accelerate chemical reactions
-enzyme reactions proceed until equilibrium is established

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140
Q

metabolic pathways

A
  • complex, life supporting reactions occur in a series of steps
  • each step is controlled by a specific enzyme
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141
Q

exergonic reactions

A
  • release energy

- energy produced is more than the activation energy

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142
Q

endergonic reactions

A

activation energy is greater than energy released

-energy taken in

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143
Q

metabolites

A

all molecules that can be broken down or synthesized in the body

-inorganic compounds- generally dont contain carbon and hydrogen as primary ingredients (H2O, CO2, oxygen, acids, bases and salts)

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144
Q

nutrients

A

essential metabolites normally obtained from the diet

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145
Q

organic compounds

A

always contain carbon and hydrogen (sugars, fats, proteins)

-carbon hydrogen bonds

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146
Q

inorganic compounds

A

generally dont contain carbon and hydrogen as primary ingredients (H2O, CO2, oxygen, acids, bases and salts)
-ionic^

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147
Q

important properties of water

A
  • lubrication- between layers of membrane
  • reactivity- hydrolysis and dehydration syn
  • high heat capacity- carries heat with it and it takes a lot of temperature change in order to change the temperature of water
  • solubility- break ionic bonds
  • physiological system depend on water
  • ionization or dissociation of inorganic compounds in water- hydration spheres form around and break apart
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148
Q

insolubility

A

fat and oils dont have polar covalent bonds so bonds are not broken

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149
Q

pH of body fluid

A
  • pH of a solution is its negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in mol/L
  • body fluid pH control is vital for homeostasis
  • hydrogen atoms in chemical reactions or bonds can lose its election and become H+ ion
  • more H+ lower pH
  • more OH- higher pH
  • H ions are extremely reactive in solution
  • in high numbers they can significantly disrupt cell and tissue functions
  • 7.35-7.45 is the pH of our bodys -> otherwise huge problems for cellular function
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150
Q

acid

A
  • an acid is a solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions (lowers pH)
  • a strong acid dissociates completely
  • releases H+ when it dissociates increasing the acidity
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151
Q

base

A
  • a solution that removes hydrogen ions from a solution (raises pH)
  • releases hydroxide ions in order to remove H+ -> forms water
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152
Q

salts

A

an ionic compound consisting of a cation (except H ion) and anion (except hydroxide ion)
-many salts dissociate in water and release anions and cations (NaCl -> Na+ and Cl-)

153
Q

buffers

A
  • compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing H ions
  • add H+ if pH is too high
  • remove H+ if pH is too low
  • buffer system- a weak acid and its related salt (functions as a weak base)
154
Q

organic compounds: functional groups

A
  • reactive parts
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
155
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • carbon to hydrogen to oxygen ratio is 1:2:1
  • C6H12O6- glucose
  • sugars and starches make up half of our diet
  • important sources of energy
  • ex. monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
156
Q

monosaccharides

A
  • simple sugars
  • 3-7 carbon atoms
  • dissolve easily and rapidly distributed by blood and other body fluids
  • *glucose- the most important metabolic fuel in the body
157
Q

disaccharides

A
  • two monosaccharides (simple sugars) joined together by dehydration synthesis
  • ex. sucrose (table sugar)
158
Q

polysaccharides

A
  • larger more complex carbohydrates resulting from repeated dehydrated synthesis
  • starches- formed from glucose molecules and broken down to monosaccharides in digestion
159
Q

lipids

A
  • carbon to hydrogen ratio of 1:2 with much less oxygen than carbs
  • common lipids- fats, oils, waxes
  • insoluble in water but carried into blood by special transport mechanisms
  • important energy reserves and structural components of cells
  • fatty acid, glycerides, eicosanoids, steroids, phospholipids and glycolipids
160
Q

fatty acids

A
  • long carbon chains with hydrogen atoms attached
  • carboxyl acid group- COOH at head: hydrophilic
  • saturated- saturated with H
  • unsaturated- not enough H -> double bonds form -> kink
161
Q

glycerides

A
  • fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecules
  • monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides
  • triglycerides- (glycerol with three fatty acids) stored in cells as lipid droplets:
  • energy source (must be broken down first
  • energy storage
  • insulation
  • protection
162
Q

eicosanoids

A
  • lipids derived from arachidonic acid
  • prostaglandins- released by cells to coordinate localized activity (ex. tissue damage: clotting, inflammation and labor contraction)
163
Q

steroids

A
  • large lipid molecules with a carbon rind framework and differing functional groups
  • cholesterol- in plasma membranes of cells, obtained in diet from animal products, synthesized in the body
  • steroid hormones- regulate sexual function, tissue metabolism and mineral balance (estrogen, testosterone)
164
Q

phospholipids and glycolipids

A
  • are structural lipids alone with cholesterol
  • long hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic
  • non-lipid head are hydrophilic
165
Q

proteins

A
  • almost all cell functions are performed by proteins
  • the most abundant organic compounds in the body
  • 20% of total body weight
  • shape determines function
  • essential function in the body- support, metabolic regulation, movement, coordination and control, transport, defense and buffering
166
Q

protein structure

A
  • long chains of amino acids
  • two amino acids can be linked by dehydration synthesis and bonds broken by hydrolysis
  • peptide bonds- bonds that link amino acids
  • pH and temperature affect protein shape and function
167
Q

Fibrous and globular proteins

A
  • fibrous- long strands
  • globular- ball shape
  • two main forms of a protein
168
Q

denaturation

A
  • pH and temperature
  • changing shape of protein changes function
  • irreversible
169
Q

nucleic acid: DNA and RNA

A
  • DNA- determines inheritance
  • RNA- messenger, transfer and ribosomal
  • nucleotides- subunits of nucleic acids
  • pentose- 5 carbon sugar
  • phosphate group
  • nitrogenous base- adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil
170
Q

ATP: a high energy compound

A
  • high energy compounds may store and transfer energy released during enzymatic reactions
  • ATP is a high energy compound formed by the phosphorylation of ADP
  • Conversion of ADP to ATP leads to energy storage in cells
  • reversion of ATP to ADP is the most important method of energy release
  • ADP -> ATP adds a phosphate group -> energy is stored in the bond
171
Q

cytoplasm

A
  • contains cytosol- fluid component of cell

- contains organelles

172
Q

DNA

A
  • chromatin- thread like strands of DNA, form chromosomes when cell is about to divide
  • in the nucleus
173
Q

ER

A

-Rough ER- have ribosomes bounded

174
Q

plasma membrane

A
  • the outer boundary of the cell
    • selectively permeable
  • physical isolation
  • separates inside of the cell from extracellular fluid
  • regulation of exchange with the environment
  • support and stability
  • maintains integrity
  • glycocalyx- carbohydrates
  • cholesterol in-bedded in membrane to stick things together
175
Q

membrane lipids

A
  • form most of the surface of the plasma membrane but only 42% of weight (proteins are heavier)
  • phospholipid bilayer:
  • hydrophilic heads ends at the membrane surface
  • hydrophobic tails form interior of membrane
  • glycolipids (outer surface) and cholesterol
  • water and solutes can not cross the lipid portion of the plasma membrane
176
Q

membrane proteins

A
  • denser than lipids
  • 55% of weight of plasma membrane
  • two structural classes of membrane proteins
  • integral proteins- embedded in lipid bilayer
  • transmembrane proteins span entire width (form channels)
  • peripheral proteins- loosely bounded to the inner or outer surface of the membrane
  • functions: transport, receptor sites, attachment of the cytoskeleton, enzymatic activity, inter-cellular joining, and cell to cell recognition (glycoproteins)
177
Q

membrane carbohydrates

A
  • 3% of weight of the membrane
  • carbs portion extends outside plasma membrane forming glycocalyx
  • lubrication
  • protection
  • binding
  • recognition (as markers)
  • cell to cell recognition -> immune system
178
Q

movement of materials into and out of the cell

A
  • the plasma membrane of the cell is selectively permeable
  • materials may cross the plasma membrane by passive or active mechanisms
  • passive mechanisms do not require ATP
  • simple and facilitated diffusion of osmosis (diffusion of water)
  • active mechanisms require ATP
  • active transport and vesicular transport
179
Q

passive mechanisms

A
  • two mains types: filtration and diffusion
  • diffusion- driven by concentration gradients
  • simple diffusion
  • facilitated diffusion
  • lipid-soluble molecules diffuse through the membrane
  • carrier mediated facilitated- large molecules that cannot diffuse are transported
  • channel mediated facilitated- small water soluble molecules and ions diffuse through membrane channels
  • osmosis
180
Q

4 types of tissue

A
  • epithelial
  • connective- fills up spaces in body, support, adipose (energy reserve)
  • muscle- contracts to produce movement
  • neural- electrical impulses to regulate the body
181
Q

epithelial tissue

A
  • epithelia- sheet of cells that cover exposed surfaces and line internal cavities
  • glands- secretory cells- endocrine and exocrine
  • four primary functions:
  • physical protection
  • control permeability
  • provide sensation
  • produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium)
182
Q

exocrine glands

A

use a duct

  • release secretion through tube like passageway
  • released right onto close by tissue
183
Q

endocrine

A
  • release secretion into blood stream
  • chemical messages
  • hormones
  • wide variety
184
Q

special characteristics of epithelia

A
  • polarity- apical and basal surfaces
  • specialized contacts- intercellular junctions
  • connective tissue support- basement membrane
  • avascular but innervated (has nerves)- does not have its own blood supply -> obtains it through diffusion from close by underlying connective tissue
  • regeneration- rapid rate of division, high rate of turnover and mitosis (reason our stomach doesnt disintegrate)
185
Q

specialization of epithelial

A
  • movement of fluids over epithelial surface (cilia)
  • movement of fluids through epithelial (microvili)
  • production of secretions
  • two function regions of an epithelial cell:
  • apical surface- faces exterior environment (lumen) or internal passagway
  • basolateral surfaces- box shape, the other three sides of cell
186
Q

microvili

A
  • increase surface area
  • absorption of materials from extracellular fluid
  • finger like projections
  • line digestive tract
187
Q

cilia

A

facilitate movement

  • hairlike projections
  • long, slender extensions of the plasma membrane
  • respiratory tract and reproductive tract
  • move fluids and secretions across the cell surface
  • beat rhythmically
188
Q

maintaining integrity of epithelia

A
  • intercellular attachments
  • occluding (tight) junctions- limit passageway between cells, block movement of integral proteins between apical and basolateral, allow passage of water
  • gap junctions- allows chemical communication through connexons
  • adhesion belt- cytoskeleton that weaves from cell to cell
  • desmosomes (macula adherens):
  • CAMS (cell adhesion molecules)- transmembrane proteins that bind to each other and to extracellular materials
  • intercellular cement- sticks it together
189
Q

basal lamina

A
  • basement membrane
  • complex structure produced by the basal surface of the epithelium and the underlying connective tissue
  • between connective tissue and epithelial cells
  • hemidesmosome is anchored to this
  • connects connective tissue and epithelial
  • clear layer
  • dense layer
190
Q

Factors that influence diffusion rate

A
  • distance- shorter distance means quicker concentration gradient elimination
  • molecule size- ions and smaller organic molecules diffuse more rapidly
  • temperature- higher temp means faster diffusion
  • gradient size- larger concentration gradient means faster diffusion
  • electrical forces- interior of membranes has (-) charge and attracts (+) charged ions into cell (gradient and charge increases diffusion)
191
Q

osmosis

A
  • the passive movement of water
  • osmotic pressure- force with which pure water moves into a solution due to its solute concentration
  • hydrostatic pressure- pressure pushing against a fluid opposing osmotic pressure
192
Q

osmolarity

A

-osmotic concentration

193
Q

tonicity

A
  • hypotonic- solution causes osmotic water flow into the cell -> swell (RBC is hypertonic and the solution is hypotonic)
  • hypertonic- osmotic movement of water out of the cell -> shrivels (crenation) (cell is hypotonic and the solution is hypertonic)
  • isotonic- does not cause an osmotic flow of water into or out of the cell (when diffusion ends)
194
Q

Carrier mediated transport

A
  • carrier proteins bind specific ions or organic substrates and carry them across membrane
  • specificity- each carrier protein in membrane will bind and transport only certain substances
  • saturation limits- availability of substance and carrier proteins limits rate of transport
  • two major types of carrier-mediated transport: facilitated diffusion and active transport
195
Q

Co transport

A

carrier moves more than one substance simultaneously

196
Q

countertransport

A

carrier protein moves 2 substances in opposite directions

-this is called an exchange pump

197
Q

facilitated diffusion

A
  • large lipid insoluble nutrients such as glucose and amino acids transported across the membrane by carrier proteins
  • depends on concentration gradient
  • molecules first bind to receptor site on protein
  • no ATP required
  • insulin diabetes
198
Q

sodium potassium exchange pump

A
  • primary active transport
  • sodium concentrations- high in extracellular fluid, low in cytoplasm
  • potassium concentrations- low in extracellular fluid, high in cytoplasm
  • Na and K are the main cation in body fluids
  • sodium-potassium exchange pump exchanges intracellular Na for extracellular K
  • *for each ATP molecules consumed 3 Na ions are ejected and 2 K ions are reclaimed into the cell
  • sodium-potassium ATPase may use up to 40% of ATP produced by resting cell
  • goes against concentration gradient by putting Na outside where there is already high concen. and K inside where there is already high concen
199
Q

secondary active transport

A
  • as Na diffuses back across the membrane through a membrane cotransporter protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into the cell
  • bc glucose goes against gradient it uses ATP
  • Na and glucose from the outside is transported into the cytoplasm
200
Q

vesicular transport

A
  • material move into and out of cells in vesicles
  • vesicles- small membranous sacs that form at or fuse with the plasma membrane
  • two major types of vesicular transport:
  • endocytosis
  • exocytosis
  • both require ATP
201
Q

Endocytosis

A
  • moves things into the cell
  • active transport
  • 3 types:
  • receptor mediated
  • pinocytosis
  • phagocytosis
202
Q

Receptor mediated endocytosis

A
  • ligands binds to receptors
  • areas coated with ligands form deep pockets in membrane
  • pockets pinch off and form endosomes (vesicles)
  • vesicles fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
  • ligands are removed and absorbed into cytoplasm
  • lysosomal and endosomal membranes separate
  • the endosome fuses with the membrane and the receptors are again available for ligand binding
203
Q

Pinocytosis

A
  • cell drinking
  • beings with the formation of deep grooves or pockets that then pinch off
  • enter the cytoplasm
  • then it follows receptor mediated endocytosis
  • the difference is that pinocytosis does not have ligand binding
204
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  • cell eating
  • phagocytes- look for things to eat like bacteria
  • endocytosis
  • extends plasma membrane around bacteria
  • it then fuses with lysosome and the contents inside are digested
  • nutrients are released
  • residue is released out of the cell (exocytosis)
205
Q

exocytosis

A

moves things out of the cell

-active transport

206
Q

transmembrane potential

A
  • results from the unequal distribution of ions across the plasma membrane
  • negatively charged proteins inside cell
  • positive and negative charges inside and outside of cell are kept apart by membrane
  • results in potential difference
  • transmembrnae potential in an undisturbed cell is its resting potential (measured in mV)
207
Q

mitochondria

A
  • responsible for energy production in the cell
  • almost all (99%) of energy comes from mitochondria
  • number in cell depends on cells energy demand
  • double membrane structure
  • cristae- the folds in the membrane- increases surface area exposed to matrix
208
Q

energy production in the mitochondria

A

cells generate ATP through breakdown of carbs, especially glucose

209
Q

glycolysis

A
  • first step in ATP production
  • splitting of glucose
  • takes place in cytoplasm
  • anarobic- does not require oxygen
  • glucose -> 2 pyruvate
  • pyruvate absorbed into mitochondria
  • CO2 removed
  • remainder enters ciric acid cycle
  • pyruvate broken into CO2 and H atoms
  • ATP synthesized from ADP, H + O forms water
210
Q

citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

A
  • aerobic- requires oxygen
  • 95% of ATP produced here
  • occurs inside mitochondria
  • generates ATP and CO2
211
Q

ribosomes

A
  • organelles responsible for protein synthesis
  • made in the nucleus (nucleolus) as rRNA
  • two subunits contain special proteins and rRNA
  • subunits join with mRNA strand before protein synthesis can begin- mRNA determines which type of proteins will be made
  • one subunit is large and the other is small -> hamburger shape
  • two major types of ribosomes:
  • free ribosomes- scattered throughout cytoplasm
  • fixed ribosomes- attached to endoplasmic reticulum
212
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • network of intracellular membranes connected to nuclear envelope of nucleus
  • synthesize- Rough ER synthesizes proteins Smooth ER synthesizes carbs, and lipids
  • stores- synthesized molecules and materials absorbed from the cytosol
  • transport- material travel along the ER
  • detoxifies- drugs and toxins absorbed by ER and neutralized by its enzymes
213
Q

smooth ER

A 
synthesis of:
-phospholipids and cholesterol
-steriod hormones
synthesis and storage of:
-glycerides
-glycogen
214
Q

rough ER

A
  • workshop and shipping department
  • newly synthesized proteins and modified are packaged for export to golgi apparatus
  • mRNA is scanned by ribosomes and gives the information for what proteins to make
215
Q

peroxisomes and lysosomes

A
  • membranous organelles containing enzymes
  • peroxisomes- detoxify harmful substances like alcohol and neutralize free radicals
  • numerous in liver and kidney cells
  • lysosomes- contain digestive enzymes
  • larger than peroxizomes
  • abundant in phagocytosis
  • cells demolition crew
216
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • consists of 5-6 flattened membranous discs: cisternae
  • modifies and packages secretions for exocytosis
  • three types of packaged products leave golgi:
    1. plasma membrane renewal
    2. leave the cell as a secretion
    3. enzymes for cytosol contained in lysosomes (stay in the cell as lysosomes)
217
Q

3 main functions of the lysosome

A
  • when greeting an endosome containing materials from outside the cell- digests substances brought into the cell
  • stay in the cell and when cells go through apoptosis the lysosomes clean it up
  • to clean up damaged organelles
218
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • cells skeleton
  • protein framework
  • strength
  • flexibility
  • microvili for absorption
  • includes:
  • microfilaments- smallest
  • intermediate filaments- strongest
  • microtubules
219
Q

microfilaments

A

smallest

220
Q

intermediate filaments

A
  • strongest

- anchor organelles

221
Q

microtubules

A
  • largest
  • monorail system
  • movement across the cell
222
Q

centrioles

A
  • aid in cell division
  • cylindrical structures of short microtubules
  • involved in cell division
  • pair of centrioles in a centrosome
  • form spindle apparatus during cell division
  • movement of DNA strands
223
Q

the nucleus

A
  • the control center of cellular operations
  • stores info needed to direct synthesis of over 100,000 different proteins
  • tells cells which proteins to make determining the function of that cell
  • genetic info coded in sequence of nucleotides in DNA
  • determines the structure and functions of cell
  • most cells have one nucleus
  • had a nuclear envelope (double membrane)
  • nuclear pores- where stuff leaves
  • nucleoplasm
224
Q

nucleosomes

A
  • chromatin wrapped around specific proteins called histones

- when unraveled it forms double helix

225
Q

chromosomes

A
  • each chromosomes has 23 pairs 23 from mom and 23 from dad

- each cell has the same DNA but different genes turned on- specilization

226
Q

telemeres

A

the cap on a chromosomes

227
Q

centromeres

A
  • attached at the kinetochore

- attached to the spindles during replication

228
Q

DNA

A
  • long parallel chains of nucleotides
  • nucleotides- 3 subunits: nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar (ribose, deoxyribose), phosphate
  • nitrogenous bases- A, T, G, C
229
Q

genetic code

A
  • chemical language the cell uses

- 64 triplets of nucleotides (codons)- each triplet codes for a single amino acid

230
Q

gene

A
  • a functional unit of heredity

- contains all the DNA nucleotides needed to produce specific proteins

231
Q

gene activation

A
  • first major event of protein synthesis
  • temporary distruption of weak H bonds between nitrogenous bases of two DNA strands
  • removal of histone guarding control segment
  • where DNA unzips so we can copy one strand
232
Q

control segment

A
  • “promoter”

- special region of the DNA with read, do not read, or start

233
Q

mRNA

A
  • info from DNA strand copied to mRNA
  • DNA cannot leave the nucleus
  • is able to leave the nucleus and be read by a ribosome to produce proteins
  • carries the message to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis
234
Q

rRNA

A

made in the nucleolus

-component of ribosomes

235
Q

tRNA

A
  • provides the amino acids
  • transfer amino acids over to the growing polypeptide chain based on the information from the mRNA
  • T replaced with U
236
Q

RNA polymerase

A

-enzyme that binds to promoter after complimentary srands separate and histone is removed

237
Q

transcription

A

production of RNA from DNA template

  • in nucleus
  • RNA polymerase scans and copies -> mRNA
238
Q

translation

A
  • the formation of a linear chain of amino acids from info provided by mRNA strand
  • in the cytoplasm
  • reading of the mRNA by the ribosome
239
Q

anticodon

A
  • loop containing 3 nitrogenous bases on a tRNA molecule

- bonds complementary with appropriate mRNA codon

240
Q

how the nucleus controls cell structure and function

A
  • DNA of the nucleus controls the cell, and every aspect of structure and function by directing the synthesis of proteins
  • direct control- instructions on mRNA controls synthesis of structural and membrane proteins
  • indirect control- over all other aspects of cellular metabolism by regulating enzymes synthesis
241
Q

stages of a cell life cycle

A
  • life span of a cell lasts from hours to decades

- cells can be damaged by physical and environmental stress

242
Q

apoptosis

A

genetically controlled death of cells

243
Q

mitosis

A

-duplication and division of somatic cells resulting in two daughter cells, each with 46 chromosomes
-genetic material in the nucleus duplicated by DNA replication: 1 copy to each daughter cell
P-MAT
-prophase
-metaphase
-anaphase
-telephase

244
Q

G0 phase

A

regular state of the cell

  • carries out functions
  • some nerve cells never leave G0
245
Q

G1 phase

A
  • doubling all its organelles

- still carrying out normal function

246
Q

S phase

A

doubling DNA

247
Q

G2 phase

A
  • last minute protein synthesis

- getting ready to divide

248
Q

cytokinesis

A

splitting of the cytoplasm of the cell

  • during cell divison
  • not apart of mitosis
249
Q

interpahse

A
  • most of the somatic cell life cycle
  • includes G0, G1, S, G2
  • cell performs all normal functions and/or preparing to divide
250
Q

prophase

A
  • chromosomes condense and coil tightly
  • centrioles migrate to opposite ends of the cell
  • spindle apparatus forms between contrioles
251
Q

metaphase

A
  • metaphase plate- dark line down the middle- chromosomes line up in the middle
  • chromosomes are just lining up in the middle
252
Q

anaphase

A

-chromosomes start to separate alone the spindle apparatus to opposite ends of the cell

253
Q

telephase

A
  • when two nuclear envelopes reform
  • two separate distinct nuclei
  • late anaphase and telephase cytokinesis is occuring
  • pinching of cytoplasm
254
Q

mitotic rate and energy use

A
  • the longer the life expectancy of a cell type, the slower the mitotic rate
  • stem cells- unspecialized cells function to produce daughter cells
  • dividing cells use substantial amounts of ATP to synthesize new organic material and move organelles and chromosomes within the cell
255
Q

cancer cells

A
  • divide a lot faster
  • mass of cancer cells protected by capsule- tumor
  • metastasis- when a cancer cell gets into the blood stream and travels to a different part of the body
256
Q

cell differentiation

A
  • the specialization process of cells is called differentiation
  • specialization is determined by which sets of genes are turned off in a cell
  • differentiation produces specialized cells with limited capabilities which organize as tissues
257
Q

desmosomes

A
  • Cell adhesion molecules (CAM)- transmembrane proteins that bind to each other and to extracellular materials
  • CAM lock togehter
  • Intercellular cement- thin layer of proteoglycans that contain polysaccharides, these stick the CAM together, the glue
258
Q

hemidesmosomes

A

-attach deepest epithelial cells to basal lamina

259
Q

avascular

A
  • epithelial cells are avascular
  • they rely on attachment to underlying connective tissue for nourishment
  • this is why the basal lamina anchors the epithelial tissue and connective tissue -> it needs O2 and nutrients
260
Q

Classification of epithelial

A 
classified by cell shape
-squamous- thin and flat
-cuboidal- small boxes
-columnar- tall, thin rectangles
and number of layers
-simple- single layer of cells
-stratified- several layers
261
Q

simple squamous epithelium

A
  • single layer of flattened cells
  • allows for easy diffusion
  • air sac in lungs (alveoli)
  • lining of blood vessels
262
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A
  • thick membrane composed of several layers
  • stratified is protective
  • resist abrasion
  • skin
  • mouth, esophagus, pharynx
263
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium

A
  • single layer of cuboidal
  • kidney tubules
  • secretion and absorption
264
Q

stratified cuboidal epithelium

A
  • rare
  • lining of some ducts
  • protection, secretion, absorption
265
Q

simple columnar epithelium

A
  • single layer of tall cells
  • absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes
  • ciliary action
  • digestive tract
  • microvili
266
Q

stratified columnar

A
  • rare
  • protection
  • small areas of the pharynx, anus, mammary glands, gland ducts
267
Q

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

A
  • single layer of cells of differing heights
  • looks stratified but its not bc of different heights
  • secrete substances, particularly mucus and propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
  • upper respiratory tract (trachea)
268
Q

transitional epithelium

A
  • resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal
  • you can identify by observing oval shapes on top
  • -stretches rapidly and can return back to original shape
  • bladder
269
Q

glands

A

epithelial cells or structures that produce secretions

270
Q

endocrine glands

A

secretions released directly into interstitial fluid and surrounding tissue
-hormones

271
Q

exocrine glands

A

secretions released onto an epithelial surface via ducts

-digestive enzymes, perspiration, tears, milk

272
Q

merocrine secretion

A
  • most common
  • golgi apparatus packages vesicle up and sends it to the apical surface
  • it then merges with the membrane
  • does not loose cytoplasm
  • dumped out into the outside (could be duct)
  • exocytosis
273
Q

apocrine secretion

A
  • golgi apparatus packages vesicles up and send it to the apical surface of the cell
  • it pinches off part of the cell with the secretion and is released into the outside environment
  • cytoplasm is lost
  • milk production
274
Q

holocrine secretion

A
  • golgi apparatus packages vesicles up
  • the entire cell burts and the secretions are released
  • certains glands in the skin
  • oil glands
275
Q

serous gland

A

-secrete a watery solution containing enzymes

276
Q

mucous glands

A

secrete mucins to form mucus

-thicker

277
Q

mixed exocrine

A

glands: may produce two different types of exocrine secretions
- serous
- mucous

278
Q

tubular

A
  • simple tubular- doesnt branch, one duct
  • simple branched tubular- one duct, branches
  • tube shape
279
Q

compound tubular

A
  • one duct on the surface but has more than one duct

- branches

280
Q

alveolar

A
  • round shape
  • simple alveolar- one duct, no branches
  • simple branched alveolar- one duct, branches
281
Q

compound alveolar

A
  • more than one duct
  • branches
  • roundish
282
Q

compound tubular alveolar

A
  • more than one duct

- has tubular and alveolar branching

283
Q

Connective tissue

A
  • contains three basic components
    1. specialized cells
    2. extracellular protein fibers outside the cells
    3. the fluid: ground substance
  • extracellular fibers and ground substance forms matrix
  • many connective tissues are highly vascular and contain sensory receptors
  • all connective tissue arises from mesenchymal (embryonic) cells
284
Q

connective tissue functions

A
  • provide a structural framework for the body
  • transport fluids and dissolved materials
  • protection of delicate organs
  • supporting, surrounding, interconnecting other types of tissues
  • storing energy reserves, especially triglycerides
  • defense against invading microorganisms
285
Q

connective tissue proper

A 
LOOSE CT: areolar, adipose and reticular
-not a lot of fibers
-you can see space
DENSE CT: regular, irregular and elastic
-has a lot of fibers
-not a lot of space
286
Q

fluid connective tissue

A

-blood and lymph

287
Q

connective tissue: cartilage (gel matrix)

A

-hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage

288
Q

connective tissue: bone (calcified matrix)

A

-compact and spongy

289
Q

fixed cells

A
  • melanocyte- fixed pigment cell that synthesizes melanin
  • fixed macrophage- stationary phagocytic cell that engulfs cell debris and pathogens
  • mast cells- fixed cells that stimulate local inflammation and mobilize tissue defenses
  • fibroblasts- fixed cells that synthesize the extracellular fibers of the connective tissue
  • adipocytes- (fat cells) fixed cells that store lipid reserves in large intracellular vesicles, energy
290
Q

fibers in connective tissue

A
  • reticular fibers- strong and form a branching network (non hollow organs)
  • collagen fibers- thickest, straight or wavy, and often form bundles. they are the STRONGEST and resist stretching (bone)
  • elastic fibers- slender, unbranching, and very stretchy. they recoil to their original length after stretching or distortion
291
Q

wandering cells

A
  • plasma cell- active mobile immune cell that produces antibodies
  • free macrophages- wandering phagocytic cells that patrol the tissue, engulfing debris or pathogens
  • mesenchymal cells- mobile stem cells that participate in the repair of damaged tissues, create connective tissue
  • neutrophils and eosinophils- small, mobile, phagocytic blood cells that enter tissues during infection or injury
  • lymphocytes-mobile cells of the immune system
292
Q

loose connective tissue

A
  • fills the spaces between organs
  • provides cushion and support blood vessels and nerves
  • stores lipids and provides a route for diffusion
  • has a lot of fibers
  • three types
    1. areolar
    2. adipose
    3. reticular
293
Q

areolar connective tissue

A
  • loose connective tissue
  • fills in the spaces between organs
  • gel-like matrix with all three fibers
  • wraps and cushions organs
  • widely distributed under epithelia of body
  • elastic and collagen fibers
294
Q

adipose connetive tissue

A
  • loose connective tissue
  • matrix as in areolar but very sparse
  • provides reserve food fuel
  • insulates
  • supports and protects organs
  • under skin in subcutaneous tissue
  • energy reserves
295
Q

reticular connective tissue

A
  • loose conective tissue
  • reticular fibers
  • framework or stroma of nonhollow organs
  • liver spleen kidney
296
Q

dense connective tissue

A
  • most of the volume is extracellular fibers
  • dense regular connective tissue- tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone), fibers are all going in the same direction
  • dense irregular- sheaths around visceral organs, bone, cartilage and nerves and thick dermis of skin, fibers are not all going in the same direction
  • elastic tissue- between vertebrae, in walls of blood vessels, ligaments supporting epithelia
297
Q

Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, sense regular

A
  • collagen fibers
  • no spaces
  • all in the same direction
  • ex. tendon, ligament
298
Q

connective tissue proper: dense CT, dense irregular

A
  • collagen fibers
  • no spaces
  • not all in the same direction
  • ex. fibrous joint capsule
299
Q

connective tissue proper: dense CT, elastic

A
  • elastic fibers
  • ex. wall of aorta
  • no space
  • going in the same direction
  • squiggly elastic appearance
300
Q

fluid connective tissue

A
  • fluid matrix (plasma) with suspended proteins
  • in blood: plasma is the matrix with formed elements suspended
  • lymph: formed by draining of interstitial fluid into lymphatic vessels
301
Q

Supporting connective tissue: cartilage

A
  • the matrix of cartilage is a firm gel containing:
    1. chondroitin sulfates
    2. chondrocytes in lacunae (small chambers)
  • cartilage is avascular- exchange of nutrients and waste occurs by diffusion through matrix
  • perichondrium- out fibrous layer for support and protection, inner cellular layer for growth and maintenance
302
Q

cartliage: hyaline

A
  • most common type of cartilage
  • joints
  • connects ribs to sternum
  • nose
  • trachea and larynx
  • caps all our bones
303
Q

elastic cartilage

A
  • outer/external ear

- epiglotis- flap covers larynx

304
Q

fibrocartilage

A
  • strongest cartilage
  • collagen fibers
  • disc in the vertebrae
  • meniscus- extra layer of cartilage in our knee
  • pubic symphysis- connects pubic bones
305
Q

Supporting connective tissue: bone

A
  • small volume of ground substance
  • two-thirds of matrix is mixture of calcium, salts, rest is collagen (majority)
  • lacunae (little spaces) contains osteocytes
  • canaliculi: branching passageways network for exchange between blood vessels and osteocytes (how they get to lacunae to lacunae getting nutrients and oxygen)
  • highly vascularized -> healing
306
Q

tissue

A
  • fluid ground substance- where the fibers and cells are
  • made of cells and fibers
  • fluid ground substance can harden (bone)
307
Q

osteoblasts

A
  • osteoblasts secrete a gel around them (matrix)
  • trapped in gel and it hardens -> lacunae
  • and becomes an osteocytes
  • osteocytes- mature bone cell
308
Q

osteon

A
  • grows in layers around blood vessels

- central canal is in the middle which contains the blood vessels

309
Q

4 classifications of CT

A
  • CT proper -> loose (reticular, adipose, alveolar) and dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
  • fluid CT
  • bone CT
  • cartilage CT (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)
310
Q

skeletal muscle tissue

A
  • voluntary
  • striated
  • contains large muscle cells called muscle fibers
  • each with several hundred nuclei (multinucleate)
  • myosatellite cells: adult stem cells divide to produce new muscle fibers for repair
  • striations: actin and myosin mircrofilaments organized in bands
  • striated voluntary muscle- contract due to nerve stimulation
  • single muscle can be referred to as fiber
311
Q

cardiac muscle

A
  • found only in the heart
  • cardiocyte- cardiac muscle cell- smaller than skeletal muscle cell, most with only one nucleus
  • intercalated discs- cardiac muscle tissue connections occur here, unison (contracts all at once) -> junction like
  • limited ability to repair itself
  • pacemaker cells- establish regular rate of contractions
  • striated involuntary muscle
  • periodic darker bands- intercalated discs (distinguishing)
312
Q

smooth muscle

A

-located in the walls of blood vessels and around:
hollow organs
respiratory, circulatory, digestive, reproductive tracts
-smooth muscle cell: small spindle shaped and a single, oval nucleus
-can divide and regenerate after an injury -> repair
-non-striated involuntary muscle

313
Q

Bones

A
  • compact and spongy
  • compact- matrix is organized in concentric layers around branches of blood vessles within the bone, interstitial growth cannot occur in bone
  • grows in rings
  • vessels move perpendicular and vertically
  • mostly collagen fibers
314
Q

perisoteum

A

outer layer of bone

  • bone surfaces are sheathed by perisoteum
  • composed of fibrous (outer) and cellular (inner) layers
315
Q

neural tissue

A
  • specialized to conduct electrical impulses throughout the body
  • contains two basic cell types: neurons and neuroglia (supporting cells)
  • most cannot divide: limited ability to repair (lack centrioles)
316
Q

neuron

A
  • longest cells in body (up to 1 meter)
  • has large cell body, dendrites and axon
  • actually conduct the impulses
317
Q

dendrites

A
  • receive impulses from receptor cells
  • receive the information typically from other neuron cells
  • branching off the cell body
  • send signal to axon
318
Q

cell body/soma

A

-receive the signal and sends to axon but is also the main metabolic and nutritional center of the cell

319
Q

axon

A

transmitter, conductor

320
Q

tissue membranes

A
  • membranes are physical barriers
  • there are many different kinds, but these line or cover body surfaces:
  • mucous membranes (epithelial)
  • serous membrane (epithelial)
  • cutaneous membranes (epithelial)
  • synovial membranes (CT)
321
Q

mucous membranes

A
  • line a lot of the passage ways that are close to the exterior of our body
  • respiratory, digestive, urinary
  • between epithelia cells are mucous secreting cells
  • epithelial surface must be kept moist to reduce friction and facilitate absorption and secretion
  • in the respiratory system mucus trap debris and the cilia move it
322
Q

serous membrane

A
  • pleura- lines the pleural cavities and covers the lungs
  • peritoneum- lines the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity and covers the surfaces of visceral organs
  • pericardium- lines the pericardial cavity and covers the heart
  • each of these have parietal and visceral
323
Q

cutaneous membrane

A

-covers the surface of the body (skin)

324
Q

synovial membrane

A
  • lines the capsul that surrounds the joints
  • synovial joints are highly moveable -> need cartilage and lubrication
  • hyaline cartilage covers the bone surface within the joint cavity
  • synovial fluid fills the joint cavity to provide lubrication
  • synovial fluid is encapsulated
  • that capsul is lined by the synovial membrane
325
Q

tissue injury

A
  1. exposure to pathogens and toxins -> triggers response
  2. mast cell activation- when CT is damaged the mast cells release chemicals (histamine, heparin) that stimulate inflammation
  3. inflammation
  4. regeneration-fibroblasts
326
Q

inflammation

A
  • inflammatory response- results from tissue injury or presence of pathogens (infection)
  • tissue area is isolated, damaged cells, dangerous microorganisms are cleaned up
  • **increase blood flow and vessel permeability (leakage of substance out of the blood into damaged tissue)
  • increase oxygen and nutrient delivery, phagocytosis, and removal of toxins and wastes, temperature
  • redness, swelling, warmth and pain
327
Q

regeneration

A
  • repair process after inflammation
  • *fibroblasts lay down collagen fibers (scar tissue)
  • new cells migrate to the site or are produced by mesenchymal stem cell division
  • scar tissue is remodeled over time
  • feedback response- inhibits activation of mast cells
328
Q

aging effects on tissue repair and cancer rates

A
  • with age: speed and effectiveness of tissue repair decreases
  • osteoporosis- age related reduction in bone strength
  • cancer rates increase with age- 25% of US citizens develop cancer at some point
  • 70-80% of cancer results from chemical exposure and/or environmental factors
  • second to heart disease in cause of death 500,000 deaths each year
329
Q

integumentary system

A
  • composed of skin and accessory organs (nails, glands, hair)
  • regulates body temp
  • protects body from external environment
  • provides sensory info from outside environment
  • excretes and absorbs substances
  • stores blood
  • synthesizes vitamin D
330
Q

layers of the skin

A
  • epidermis
  • dermis
  • bottom is hypodermis but not considered a layer
331
Q

dermis

A
  • papillary layer
  • reticular layer
  • connective tissue
  • vascular
332
Q

skin

A
  • aka- cutaneous membrane
  • largest organ of the body in surface area and weight
  • two main parts-
  • epidermis- superficial, thin, avascular epithelial tissue
  • dermis- deeper, thicker, connective tissue, vascular
333
Q

epidermis

A
  • thin
  • avascular
  • epithelial tissue
  • protects dermis from trauma, chemicals
  • controls skin permeability, prevents water loss
  • prevents entry of pathogens
  • synthesizes D3
  • sensory reception- touch, pressure, pain, temp
  • coordinated immune response to pathogens and skin cancer
334
Q

stratum basale

A
  • aka- stratum germinativum
  • deepest epidermal layer
  • single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes
  • some cells are mitotic stem cells (basal cells) that produce new kartinocytes
  • all the other layers originate from this layer
  • daughter cells migrate
  • merkel cells are here
335
Q

stratum spinosum

A
  • spiny layer
  • superficial to the stratum basale
  • 8-10 layers of keratinocytes produced by stem cells in stratum basale
  • cells are covered with thorn like spines- provides strength and flexibility to skin
  • dendritic cells are here
336
Q

stratum granuosum

A
  • grainy layer
  • superficial to stratum spinosum
  • 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes in the middle of epidermis
  • losing organelles to make more space for keratin
  • keratinocytes here are undergoing apoptosis
  • keratoghyalin- protein that assembles keratin intermediate filaments into keratin
  • lamellar granules- secretion which acts as water repellent sealant is here
337
Q

stratum corneum

A
  • most superficial layer
  • thin
  • flat cells, tough
  • 25-30 layers of flattened, dead keratinocytes
  • fully packed with keratin
  • protection
  • no orgnaelles
  • cells are continuously shed and replaced by cells from deeper strata
  • multiple layers of dead cells protect deeper layers
338
Q

keratinocytes

A
  • epithelial cells that make up the stratum epidermis
  • produce keratin
  • 90% of epidermal cells
  • 4-5 layers
  • produce lamellar granules- release a water repellent sealant- water stays on top of skin
339
Q

melanocyte

A
  • produce melanin- contributes to skin color and absorbs UV light
  • protect from UV light
  • 8% of epidermal cells
  • melanin granules cover the side of the keratinocyte nucleus towards skin surface
  • these cells grow and cover in order to protect the underlying cells in the basale from UV -> darker skin
340
Q

langerhans cell

A
  • dendritic cell
  • small fraction of epidermal cells
  • trigger immune response
  • formed in bone marrow, migrate to epidermis
  • antigen presenting cell- helps immune cells recognize invading microbes
341
Q

merkel cell

A
  • sensory cell
  • least numerous epidermal cells
  • located in the deepest layer of the epidermis
  • in proximity to sensory neurons
  • if this cell is squished then it will collide with the sensory neuron and trigger a response/sensation -> touch
  • contact merkel (tactile) discs- flattened process of a sensory neuron, to detect touch
342
Q

stratum lucidum

A
  • clear
  • thick
  • thick skin
  • 4-6 layers
  • palms of hands feet, fingers
  • protection
  • no organelles
  • dead keratinocytes
  • cells have large amounts of keratin and kertohyalin
  • thick plasma membranes for toughness -> clear
343
Q

interstitial growth

A
  • cells within the cartilage and bone are growing
  • push the boundaries from within
  • growing within
  • interstitial tissue
344
Q

appositional growth

A
  • the way bones and cartilage grow by adding new layers on top of existing
  • external growth
345
Q

layers of the epidermis

A

-stratum corneum
-optional- stratum lucidum
-stratum
granulosum
-stratum spinosum
-stratum basale
-as cells move further away from dermis they will lose oxygen and nutrients and die

346
Q

keratinization and growth of epidermis

A
  • newly formed cells in stratum basale are slowly pushed to the surface
  • keratinization- as cells move through each level, they accumulate more keratin
  • eventually undergo apoptosis and slough off
  • entire process- 4-6 weeks on avg. thickness
  • rate of cell division increases with abrasion and burns
347
Q

psoriasis

A
  • cells travel too quickly to the top
  • havnt had time to pick up keratin and lose organelles
  • raw/alive skin on the surface
348
Q

dermis

A
  • deeper part of the skin
  • composed of dense irregular connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers
  • provides great strength, flexibility and elasticity
  • contains two regions:
  • papillary region- thin, superficial
  • reticular region- thick, deeper
349
Q

papillary layer

A
  • 1/5th the thickness of the dermis
  • thin collagen and fine elastic fibers
  • dermal papillae- nipple shaped structures that increase surface area and project into epidermis (squiggly)
  • capillary loops- blood vessels in all dermal pop.
  • meissners (tactile) corpuscles- light touch receptors
  • free nerve endings- warmth, cool, pain, itch
350
Q

reticular region of dermis

A
  • deeper 4/5ths of dermis
  • consists of dense, irregular connective tissue with thick collagen and coarse elastic fibers
  • extensibility and elasticity
  • blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous (oil) glands and sudoriferous (sweat) glands
  • lamellated (pacinnian) corpuscles- free nerve endings for deep pressure and vibration sensation
351
Q

skin color

A
  • melanin, carotene and hemoglobin- pigments
  • the amount of melanin causes skin color to vary from pale yellow to black
  • two forms of melanin:
  • pheomelanin- yellow to red
  • eumelanin- brown to black
  • exposure to UV light increases enzymatic activity within melanosomes -> darker skin
352
Q

alteration in skin color- disease

A
  • redness (erythema)- fever, increased BP, allergy, inflammation or blushing
  • pallor (blanching)- anemia, stress, or low BP
  • jaundice- liver disorder, yellow skin tone due to bile accumulation in body tissue
  • bronzing- addisons disease or pituitary tumor
  • black and blue (bruising)- blood escapes circulation and clots beneath skin
353
Q

tatoo

A

-needs to reach the dermis because the epidermis sheds off

354
Q

accessory structures of the skin

A
  • hair
  • nails
  • skin glands:
  • sebaceous
  • sudoriferous
  • ceruminous
355
Q

hair

A
  • columns of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
  • shaft- projects above surface of the skin
  • root- penetrates into dermis or subcutaneous layer
  • produce hair that protects the skull
  • produce hairs that provide delicate touch sensation on general body surface
  • three concentric layers:
  • medulla- inner, lacking in thinner hair
  • cortex- middle, major part of shaft
  • cuticle- outer most, heavily keratinized
356
Q

exocrine glands

A
  • assist in thermoregulations
  • excrete waste
  • lubricate epidermis
357
Q

nails

A
  • protect and support tips of fingers and toes
  • same thing as epidermis ->keratinocytes but more tightly packed
  • harder
  • denser
  • dead epidermal cells
358
Q

arrector pili muscle

A
  • smooth muscle
  • attaches to dermal root sheath
  • hair follicle
359
Q

hair follicle

A
  • epithelial root sheath:
  • external root sheath- continuation of epidermis
  • internal root sheath- produced by matrix
  • dermal root sheath- dense dermis surrounding hair follicle
360
Q

bulb

A
  • base of hair follicle
  • houses papilla of hair
  • papilla- areolar connective tissue and blood supply
361
Q

hair life cycle

A
  • active phase- lasts 2-5 years, hair grows continuously, existing cells pushed upwards
  • regression stage- cells of matrix stop dividing, follicle atrohpies, hair stops growing (2-3 weeks)
  • resting phase- hair loses attachment to the follicle and becomes a club hair
  • follicle reactivation- club hair is shed and hair matrix begins producing replacement
362
Q

types of hair

A
  • lanugo- very fine, non-pigmented hair covering the fetus, 5th month of development-birth
  • terminal hairs- long, coarse pigmented hairs, replace lanugo at eyebrows, lashes and scalp
  • vellus hairs- short, fine, pale peach fuzz, that replaces lanugo at the rest of the body
  • at puberty terminal hairs replace vellus hairs
363
Q

sebaceous glands

A
  • aka- oil glands
  • simple, branched, acinar glands
  • most are connected to hair follicles
  • secreting portion in dermis opens into hair follicle
  • secrete oily substance- sebum- coats surface of hairs and keeps hairs from drying and skin soft, pliable
  • release secretion along hair
364
Q

sebaceous follicles

A
  • secrete onto skin surface
  • face, back, chest, nipples, and external genitalia
  • do not release secretion along the length of the hair
  • have only separate duct to the skin
365
Q

sudoriferous glands

A
  • aka- sweat glands
  • 3-4 million in the body
  • two main types:
  • merocrine (eccrine)
  • aprocrine
366
Q

Sudoriferous gland: merocrine (eccrine)

A
  • more common
  • most of body
  • discharge directly onto skin
  • thermoregulatory- sweating and excretion
  • controlled by nervous system
367
Q

Sudoriferous gland: apocrine

A
  • armpit
  • groin
  • areolae
  • secrete into hair follicle
  • no role in thermoregulation
  • hormonal control (endocrine system)
  • puberty
368
Q

ceruminous glands

A
  • modified sweat glands in the external ear
  • secretory portion in subcutaneous layer
  • excretory ducts open onto surface of ear canal or into ducts of sebaceous glands
  • combines secretion of sebaceous and ceruminous glands is cerumen (earwax)
  • waterproof canal and impedes foreign bodies
369
Q

nail body

A
  • visible portion of nail

- free edge- part extending past end of digit

370
Q

nail root

A
  • portion buried in a fold of skin

- lunula: whitish, thickened crescent shaped area

371
Q

hyponychium

A

nail bed

-secures nail to fingertip

372
Q

eponychium

A

-cuticle, narrow band of epidermis (stratum corneum) adheres to nail wall

373
Q

skin cancer

A
  • basal cell carcinoma- stratum basale, most common, least malignant
  • squamous cell carcinoma- stratum spinosum, 2nd most common
  • melanoma- melanocytes, least common, most deadly
374
Q

burns

A
  • 1st degree- epidermis, redness, swelling and pain, sunburn
  • 2nd degree- upper dermis, blisters
  • 3rd degree- full thickness, gray/white or blackened, nerve endings destroyed, graft may be necessary
375
Q

functions of the skin

A
  • thermoregulation- sweat and blood flow
  • blood reservoir- dermis 8-10% of total blood flow
  • protection- microbes, abrasions, heat, chemicals, dehydration, UV light
  • cutaneous sensations- tactile, thermal, pain
  • excretion and absorption- removal of H2O/heat, excretion of salts, CO2, ammonia and urea in sweat, absorption of fat soluble vitamins, drugs, gases
  • synthesis of vitamin D exposure to UV light
376
Q

Synthesis of vitamin D

A
  • lipid based steroid compound in the skin turns into cholecalciferol when there is sunlight
  • cholecalciferol goes to liver -> kidneys
  • kidneys secrete calcitrol -> stimulation of calcium and phosphate ion absorption
  • strong bones
377
Q

thin skin

A
  • hairy
  • all part of the body except palms, palmar surface of digits, soles
  • no stratum lucidum
  • has hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, sebaceous glands
  • few sudoriferous glands
378
Q

thick skin

A
  • hairless
  • found in palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles
  • has stratum lucidum
  • no hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, or sebaceous glands
  • more sudiferous glands- sweat
379
Q

midline

A
  • stomach

- urinary bladder

HAN 200 (3 decks)

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