Exam 1 Flashcards
(147 cards)
1
Q
What is spatial analysis?
A
Tool to explain distributions and movement across Earth and interactions with human activity
2
Q
What is physical geography?
A
- Asks where and why about natural processes
- The spatial analysis of all the physical elements, processes, and systems that make up the environment
3
Q
What is the human denominator?
A
The totality of human impact on earth
4
Q
What are open systems?
A
Not self-contained in that inputs of energy and matter flow into the system and outputs of energy and matter flow from the system
(Earth is an open system because solar energy enters freely and heat energy returns back to space)
5
Q
What are closed systems?
A
Self-contained and shut-off from the surrounding environment
Earth is a closed system in terms of air, water, and natural resources
6
Q
What is the order of the scientific method?
A
Observation, questions, variables, hypothesis, testing, results, and theory development
7
Q
What is the scientific theory?
A
Based on evidence and experimentation
repeatable and reproducible
8
Q
What is the atmosphere?
A
- Thin, gaseous layer around the Earth
- Highest up and abiotic
9
Q
What is the hydrosphere?
A
- All of Earth’s waters in atmosphere, surface, and in crust
- Below the atmosphere and abiotic
10
Q
What is the lithosphere?
A
- Earth’s crust and portion of upper mantle below the crust
- Below the hydrosphere and abiotic
11
Q
What is the biosphere?
A
- All the living organisms on Earth & their physical environment
- Bottom layer, under the lithosphere, and biotic
12
Q
What are feedback loops?
A
As a system operates it generates outputs or feedback that influences its own operations
13
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
Discourages change in the system
14
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
Encourages change in the system
15
Q
What is steady-state equilibrium?
A
A system that remains balanced over time, in which conditions are constant or recur
16
Q
What is dynamic equilibrium?
A
A changing trend over time
17
Q
What is a threshold?
A
AKA the tipping point, systems in equilibrium may reach a threshold where it can no longer maintain its character so it slips to a new operational level
18
Q
What is a geoid?
A
Irregular shape of Earth’s surface coinciding with mean sea level and perpendicular to the direction of gravity
19
Q
Describe latitude
A
- Degrees north and south of the equator
- Parallel: a line of latitude
- Equator is 0°
- Measured in degrees
20
Q
Describe longitude
A
- Angular distance east or west of the center of Earth
- Meridian: a line of longitude
- Prime Meridian = 0° Greenwich, England
21
Q
What is cartography?
A
Science and art of mapmaking
22
Q
What are the elements of a map?
A
Title, north arrow, symbols, legend, scale, and map projection
23
Q
What is scale?
A
The ratio of the size of a map to the area in the real world
24
Q
What are the three types of scale?
A
Ratio scale, graphic scale, and written scale
25
What are projections?
- A way of showing a 3-D object in 2-D form
| - Always has some type of distortion
26
What is an equal area projection?
Areas are correct regardless of longitude and latitude but shapes are incorrect
27
What is a true shape projection?
Also known as conformal, shapes are correct but area is incorrect (ex: mercator projection)
28
What are topographic maps?
Generally represent terrain and relief
29
What are isoline maps?
Lines that generally represent a given value
(contour lines = elevation
isotherms = temp
isobars = air pressure)
30
What is relief?
Difference in elevation between two locations
31
What is a GPS?
- Global positioning system
| - Accurately determines location anywhere on or near the surface of Earth with radio signals
32
What is a GIS?
- Geographic information system
| - Computer-based data-processing tool that combines different spatial datasets with attributes
33
What are types of spatial data?
Points, lines, and polygons
34
What are types of attribute data?
Features, characteristics, measurements, and values
35
What is passive remote sensing?
Records energy radiated from a surface
| ex: light and heat
36
What is active remote sensing?
System that directs energy at a surface and analyzes the energy returned
(ex: LIDAR - uses pulses of visible light)
37
What is geovisualization?
The display of geographic information combined with other information
38
What is the international date line?
The line where one day officially changes to another
39
Describe solar activity
- Mass of Sun under immense pressure and high temperatures
- Hydrogen atoms forced together and energy released through fusion
- Energy radiates outwards in all directions from Sun
40
Describe the electromagnetic spectrum
- Essential input of energy to Earth is waves of radiant energy from the sun
- All objects radiate energy in wavelengths related to their surface temperatures
- Solar radiation occupies a portion of the spectrum
41
How is light and energy measured?
By wavelength and frequency
42
What is frequency?
The number of waves passing a fixed point in 1 second
43
What is wavelength?
Distance between corresponding points on any two successive waves
44
List the spectrum from shortest wavelength to longest wavelength
Gamma, xray, UV, visible, near infrared, shortwave infrared, mid infrared, thermal infrared, microwave, radio
45
List the spectrum from lowest frequency to highest frequency
Radio, microwave, thermal infrared, mid infrared, shortwave infrared, near infrared, visible, UV, xray, gamma
46
What is true about hotter objects and the electromagnetic spectrum?
Hotter objects emit more energy and short wavelengths
47
Describe the input of energy to Earth
- Shortwave radiation from the sun to earth
- UV
- Visible (mainly light)
- Shortwave infrared
48
Describe the output of energy to Earth
- Longwave radiation from Earth to space
| - Thermal infrared (heat)
49
What is insolation?
- Solar radiation arriving at Earth’s atmosphere and surface
| - "incoming solar radiation"
50
What happens to insolation when it reaches earth?
Less than half passes through the top of the atmosphere and reaches the surface, the rest is reflected, scattered, and absorbed by the atmosphere
51
Describe the uneven distribution of insolation
Earth is curved, which leads to differing Sun angles, which leads to uneven distribution and heating
52
What is the sub solar point?
- Where the Sun is directly overhead (90°angle)
- Highest concentration of energy
- Moves from 23.5°N (Tropic of Cancer) to 23.5°S (Tropic of Capricorn) throughout the year
53
What is net radiation?
- Difference between incoming shortwave and outgoing longwave radiation
- Tropics have positive net radiation (more incoming than outgoing)
- Poles have negative net radiation (more outgoing than incoming)
54
What is seasonality?
Changes in the angle of the Sun and changes in the hours of daylight
55
What is the suns altitude?
Angle of the sun above the horizon
56
What is declination?
The latitude of the subsolar point which migrates between the tropics of cancer and capricorn
57
What are the seasons caused by?
Revolution, rotation, axial tilt, axial parallelism, and sphericity
58
What is the winter solstice?
- December 21
| - Subsolar point is at 23.5°S at Tropic of Capricorn
59
What is the vernal equinox?
- March 21
- All of Earth has 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night
- Subsolar point is at equator (0°)
60
What is the summer solstice?
- June 21
| - Subsolar point at 23. 5°N at Tropic of Cancer
61
What is the autumnal equinox?
- September 22
- All of Earth has 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night
- Subsolar point is at equator (0°)
62
How high up is the top of the atmosphere?
480 km/300 miles
63
What is the exosphere?
- The layer after the atmosphere
- Less dense than atmosphere
- Weakly bounded by gravity
64
What are the 3 classifications of the atmosphere?
- Chemical (heterosphere, homosphere)
- Temperature (thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, troposphere)
- Functional (ionosphere, ozonosphere)
65
What is the heterosphere?
Lighter gases that are not evenly mixed are in distinct layers based on density
66
What is the homosphere?
- Gases well mixed. Only exception is the ozone concentration
- Constant and variable gases
- Lots of nitrogen
67
Describe pressure and density in the atmosphere
- Earth’s atmosphere presses downward due to gravity
- Denser closer to Earth’s surface
- Air pressure = 1.03 kg/cm2 at sea level
68
What is heat?
The flow of kinetic energy from one body to another
69
How does heat flow depend on density?
- Low density, low heat energy
| - High density, high heat energy
70
What is temperature?
A measure of kinetic energy, or the speed of molecular movement
71
What is kinetic energy?
The energy of motion
72
What is the thermosphere?
- "heat sphere"
- Upper boundary called Thermopause
- High temps
- Low density
- Low heat
73
What is the mesosphere?
- Upper boundary called Mesopause
- Temperature decreases with height
- Coldest portion of the atmosphere
- Noctilucent clouds
74
What is the stratosphere?
- Upper boundary called Stratopause
| - Temperature increases with height due to ozone converting UV to heat
75
What is the troposphere?
- Top boundary called Tropopause which varies with season, latitude, and surface temp/pressure
- Heat source = the ground
- 90% of atmospheric mass
- Weather occurs here
- Temperature decreases with height
76
What is the normal lapse rate?
6.4°C per 1000 meters
77
What is the ionosphere?
- In the thermosphere and mesosphere
- Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, and shorter wavelengths of UV radiation
- Changes atoms to positively charged ions
78
What is the ozonosphere?
- Portion of the Stratosphere
- Highly reactive oxygen molecule made up of 3 oxygen atoms
- Absorbs UV radiation and radiates it as heat.
79
What are pollutants?
Gases, particles, and other chemicals in the atmosphere that are harmful to human health or cause environmental damage
80
What are natural pollutants?
- Produce more pollution than humans
| - Ex: wildfires, volcanoes, plants, soil
81
What is photochemical smog?
Sunlight interacting with chemicals in automobile exhaust
82
What is industrial smog and sulfur oxides?
- Coal-burning industries
- Sulfur dioxide interacts with oxygen and water to make sulfate aerosols and sulfuric acid
- Acid deposition
83
What are particulates?
Small particles in the air harmful to human health
84
What is the Clean Air Act?
- Signed into law in 1970
- Established standards for national air quality, auto emissions and fuel economy, power plant emissions, and ozone protection
- Benefits to human health and the economy
85
What is an analemma?
Sun making a figure 8 path at noon throughout the year
86
What are auroras?
When solar winds interact with the magnetosphere and most are deflected to the poles and only a portion enters atmosphere
87
What is radiant energy?
Energy from the sun
88
What is kinetic energy?
Energy of motion (temp)
89
What is potential energy?
Stored energy that has capacity to do work (Gas)
90
What is chemical energy?
Molecule bonds
91
What is energy?
The capacity to do work or move material
92
What is heat?
The flow of kinetic energy between molecules because of a temperature difference (flows from hot to cold)
93
What is sensible heat?
Heat we can feel
94
What is latent heat?
Energy gained or lost when a substance changes from one state to another
95
What is radiation?
Transfer of heat in electromagnetic waves
96
What is conduction?
Molecule-to-molecule transfer
97
What is convection?
Vertical movement caused by differences in temp and density within a fluid (warm rises and cold sinks)
98
What is advection?
Horizontal transfer of energy
99
What is scattering?
The atmosphere changes the direction of light’s movement without altering its wavelengths
100
What is diffuse radiation?
Incoming energy that reaches the surface of the earth after scattering
101
What is refraction?
When light enters the atmosphere, it passes from an empty space into gases (causes insolation to change speed and direction)
102
What is reflection?
A portion of arriving energy that bounces back
103
What is albedo?
- Reported by the percentage of insolation that is reflected
- 100% is total reflection...high albedo reflects more
- 0% is total absorption...low albedo reflects less
104
What is absorption?
Assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter and its conversion from one form of energy to another
105
What is global dimming?
The decline in insolation reaching Earth’s surface because of pollution
106
What is the distribution of energy like in the tropics?
- Insolation high, day length consistent, little seasonal variation
- Positive net radiation (surplus)
107
What is the distribution of energy like in the polar regions?
- Insolation low, high albedo, low Sun angle
| - Negative net radiation (deficit)
108
What is the boundary layer?
Earth’s surface and Troposphere
109
What is simplified surface energy balance?
net radiation = incoming SW - outgoing SW + incoming LW - outgoing LW
110
What is latent heat of evaporation?
Water absorbs large quantities of latent heat energy as it changes state to water vapor. This is later released when the water vapor condenses back to liquid.
111
What is ground heating and cooling?
Flows in the surface (land or water) by conduction
112
How does net radiation flow from a surface?
Sensible heat, latent heat of evaporation, and ground heating and cooling
113
What is sensible heat flux?
Back-and-forth transfer between air and surface through convection and conduction
114
What is latent heat flux?
Energy that is stored in water vapor as water evaporates
115
What is ground heat flux?
Energy that flows in the ground surface by conduction
116
What are the principal temp controls?
Latitude, altitude and elevation, cloud cover, land-water heating difference, and ocean currents and sea surface temps
117
What are microclimates?
Small regions with climates that are different from the areas around them
118
What is a thermal equator?
An isotherm connecting all points of highest mean temp
119
What is wind chill?
Combination of air temp and wind speed
120
What is heat index?
Combination of air temperature and humidity
121
What is a heat wave?
3 days in a row when temperatures are > 90 °F
122
What is transmission?
The passage of shortwave and longwave energy through either atmosphere or water
123
Why does air flow from one region to another?
Because of differences in air pressure caused by uneven heating
124
What is air pressure?
Pressure produced by the motion, size, and number of gas molecules in the air and exerted on surfaces in contact with the air
125
Describe air pressure and density
Denser = more force = higher air pressure
| Less dense = less force = lower air pressure
126
Describe air pressure and temp
- High pressure is cold, dry air
- Low pressure is warm, humid air
- Wind moves from high pressure to low pressure
127
How is air pressure measured?
- Barometer
| - Normal sea level pressure is 1013.2 mb
128
What is wind?
- Horizontal motion of air caused by differences in air pressure
- Winds are named for the direction from which they originate
129
How are wind speed and direction measured?
- An anemometer measures wind speed
| - A wind vane determines wind direction
130
What forces drive wind?
Gravitational force, pressure-gradient force, coriolis force, and friction force
131
What is the gravitational force?
Gravity pulls objects, including air molecules, toward the center of the Earth
132
What is the pressure-gradient force?
The difference in air pressure between two points on Earth’s surface (higher to lower pressure)
133
What is the coriolis force?
- Wind appears to be deflected in relation to Earth’s rotating surface
- To the right in the Northern Hemisphere
- To the left in the Southern Hemisphere
134
What is the friction force?
- Rough surfaces produce friction
| - Slows wind speeds and reduces the effect of the Coriolis force close to the surface
135
Describe air pressure and wind
- High pressure: descending and diverging air (anticyclone)
| - Low pressure: ascending and converging air (cyclone)
136
What is the intertropical convergence zone?
Warm, moist air rises over the equator, cools, releases latent heat, and produces condensation and rainfall (formed by heating and convergence forcing air aloft)
137
What are rossby waves?
Ripples along the polar front increase in amplitude to form waves
138
What are jet streams?
Migrating rivers of wind that influence surface weather
139
What are the two types of jet streams?
- Polar jet stream 30°-70°N, steers cold air masses south
| - Subtropical jet stream 20°-50°N
140
How are land and sea breezes formed?
From differences in land and water heating
141
What are mountain/valley breezes?
- Cools/heats rapidly
- Night: cooler air subsides downslope
- Day: valley air heats, rises upslope
142
What are katabatic winds?
- Stronger than local winds
| - Air at the surface cools, becomes denser, flows downslope
143
What are monsoon winds?
Seasonally shifting wind systems caused by the annual cycle of migrating pressure belts
144
What are surface currents?
- Driven by the winds flowing out of the subtropical high
| - Coriolis force deflects them
145
What are poleward flows?
Warm water flows from equator to the poles then cools and moves back to the equator
146
What are upwelling flows?
- Move vertically due to differences in temperature, salinity, and density
- Brings cooler, nutrient-rich water to surface
147
What is thermohaline circulation?
- Deep currents
| - Differences in density caused by differences in temperature and salinity
