exam 1 BACKGROUND Flashcards
1
Q
What is anatomy?
A
study of structure (detailed; look at structure, position, composition, & relation)
2
Q
What is physiology?
A
study of function (how does this thing work?)
3
Q
What are the levels of organization? (in order from smallest to largest)
A
chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, & organismal level
4
Q
What is the chemical level?
A
atoms that combine to form molecules & 3-D molecules (called macromolecules)
5
Q
What is the cellular level?
A
organelles, atoms, ions, & molecules become organized into cells (some contain a nucleus)
6
Q
What is an example of an organelle?
A
mitochondria; many macromolecules are also organelles
7
Q
What is the tissue level?
A
similar cells from similar origins work together as a unit
8
Q
What are the 4 types of tissues?
A
epithelial, connective, muscular, & nervous
9
Q
What is the organ level?
A
2 or more tissues that work together for the same function
10
Q
What is the organ system level?
A
2 or more organs that work together
11
Q
What is the organismal level?
A
all of the systems working together
12
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
the body “tries” to keep everything constant/regulated
13
Q
What is matter?
A
anything that has mass and takes up space
14
Q
What is mass?
A
amount of matter in an object (weight is the gravitational force on that mass)
15
Q
What are elements?
A
the simplest type of matter made of identical particles called atoms
16
Q
What are atoms?
A
basic building block of all matter; designated by an atomic number & composed of protons, neurons, and electrons
17
Q
What is an atomic number?
A
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
18
Q
What is atomic weight?
A
sum of the number of protons & neutrons in an atom (kind of)
19
Q
Where are the protons, neutrons, & electrons located in an atom?
A
protons & neutrons are in the nucleus; electrons travel in the shell
20
Q
What is the maximum number of electrons that the 1st shell can hold?
A
2 electrons
21
Q
What is the maximum number of electrons that the 2nd & 3rd shells can hold?
A
8 electrons
22
Q
When are atoms most stable?
A
when the outer shell is filled to the maximum (shells must be filled in order)
23
Q
What do chemical bonds do?
A
transfer/share electrons between atoms so that the outer shells are filled to (or approach) the maximum; as a result, molecules are formed
24
Q
What are the 2 types of chemical bond formations?
A
ionic bond formation & covalent bond formation
25
What is ionic bond formation?
when an electron moves from one atom to another, forming charged particles called ions
26
What is covalent bond formation?
a pair of electrons is shared; there are 2 different types
27
What are the 2 different types of covalent bond formations?
polar & non-polar
28
What is a non-polar covalent bond?
equal sharing of the electron pair
29
What is a polar covalent bond?
unequal sharing of the electron pair
30
What happens as a result of a polar covalent bond?
electrons are “pulled” in a way that causes 1 part of the molecule to gain a slight positive charge while the other parts become slightly negative
31
What are hydrogen bonds?
occur when areas of positive & negative adhere to each other (not a true chemical bond); these areas are weak associations between adjacent polar molecules; only formed by polar covalent bonds
32
What does hydrogen bond formation result in?
surface tension, capillary action, frost formation, & protein structure
33
What is an example of surface tension?
water spider walking on the surface; a paper clip floating in water
34
What is an example of capillary action?
pulling blood from finger prick; it is the movement of water due to forces
35
What is an example of frost formation?
snowflake structure; ice formation; results in frostbite
36
What is protein structure?
gives proteins a precise 3-D shape
37
What is organic chemistry based on?
the element carbon
38
What can carbon do to fill it’s outer shell?
bond with up to 4 atoms at a time
39
What are the 4 classes of biologic organic molecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, & nucleic acids
40
Which elements does carbon often form covalent bonds with?
hydrogen & oxygen; it can also covalently bond to nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, & a host of other atoms
41
What are carbohydrates commonly called?
sugars & starches
42
What do carbohydrates contain?
carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen with the ratio 1:2:1; they have a chemical formula of (CH2O)n where “n” is the number of carbon atoms present
43
What do carbohydrate molecules do?
serve a structural purpose in our cells & are broken down to provide our cells with the energy required to carry out daily functions
44
How can carbohydrates be classified?
by their size & solubility (the ability of a substance to dissolve)
45
What are the 3 classes of carbohydrates?
monosaccharides, disaccharides, & polysaccharides
46
What are monosaccharides?
simple sugars such as glucose & fructose; they can be joined through a chemical reaction called dehydration to produce disaccharides
47
How are monosaccharides used?
as an energy source for our cells; these molecules are the most soluble
48
What are disaccharides?
formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined; they are present in many foods & include sugars such as sucrose and lactose
49
How are disaccharides used?
they are useful in energy generation when first dissembled through a chemical reaction called a hydrolysis reaction
50
What are polysaccharides?
formed when many monosaccharides are joined through a dehydration reaction; of all carbohydrate types, these molecules are the least soluble
51
How are polysaccharides used?
they are large molecules found as structural components in both plants & animals
52
What are the characteristics of polysaccharides in plants?
these molecules are called cellulose & are used to form plant cell structure; they make plant material “crunchy”
53
What are the characteristics of polysaccharides in animals?
these molecules are known as glycogen & are used as a storage form of energy
54
What are lipids?
non-polar molecules; they cannot mix well with polar molecules such as water; a chemical term used to describe these molecules is hydrophobic (water-fearing)
55
What are lipids made of?
long chains of carbon with hydrogen, oxygen, & often nitrogen and phosphorus
56
What are the 4 classes of lipids?
fats, phospholipids, prostaglandins, & steroids
57
What are fats used for?
these molecules serve as energy storage; they provide insulation & padding for delicate body organs
58
What are phospholipids?
unique hybrid molecules that contain 2 non-polar hydrophobic carbon chains (called “tails”) & 1 phosphate (PO4) molecule (called its “head”)
59
What portion of phospholipids are hydrophilic (water-loving)?
the “head” region of the molecule; it can easily mix with water
60
How are phospholipids used?
they are integral parts of cell membranes; this molecule forms an excellent barrier as it’s head end can mix with polar molecules like water while it’s tail end can only mix with non-polar substances
61
What are prostaglandins?
lipids that help the body respond to injury
62
How are prostaglandins used?
these molecules promote inflammatory responses throughout the body; they aid in blood clot formation & influence blood pressure
63
What are steroids?
these molecules are made of carbons arranged in 4 ring-like structures; they include many hormones & cholesterol; they are also present in cell membranes
64
What are proteins?
big molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & usually sulfur
65
How are proteins used?
these molecules are used as enzymes, energy sources, & structural components in the cell; they are made of subunits called amino acids
66
How are amino acids joined?
by using a type of covalent bond called a peptide bond
67
What causes “folding” in proteins?
the formation of hydrogen bonds between various areas of the protein due to the amino acid arrangement
68
What happens as a result of “folding”?
proteins have a very specific & often unique 3-D structure
69
What happens if the 3-D structure of a protein is altered?
the protein’s characteristics are usually altered as well
70
How can proteins be denatured?
by altering the pH of their environment, by heating them, or sometimes by exposing them to extreme cold
71
What are nucleic acids?
large molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & phosphorus arranged in units called nucleotides
72
How are nucleic acids used?
they form the genetic instructions that our cells use to manufacture proteins; we call these DNA & RNA
73
What is cytology?
cell biology
74
What 3 areas make up the cell?
cell/plasma membrane, organelles & cytoplasm, and nucleus
75
What is the cell membrane made of?
2 layers of phospholipids oriented tail-to-tail
76
What is the area inside of the cell called?
intracellular fluid/matrix (ICF)
77
What is the area outside of the cell called?
extracellular fluid/matrix (ECF)
78
What does the phospholipid bilayer do?
separates the ICF from the ECF, but it allows molecules to enter & exit; it is selectively permeable
79
What do cholesterol units do and where are they located?
they hold the phospholipids together to prevent unraveling; they are in the cell membrane between phospholipids
80
What structure is scattered throughout the cell membrane to act as a channel?
3-D proteins that come in different shapes/forms
81
What are branched carbs?
they are attached to some proteins & they serve as receptors/signals
82
What is cytoplasm?
mostly water in a semi-solid form that also contains ions & amino acids used to build proteins
83
What are examples of ions?
sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl-), calcium (Ca++), potassium (K+), etc.
84
What are organelles & where are they found?
clumps of macromolecules where chemical reactions occur; found in the cytoplasm
85
What are examples of organelles?
mitochondria, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body/apparatus, lysosome, etc.
86
What is the mitochondria?
capsular shaped (with folded inner membrane) that extracts ATP (cell energy) from glucose when oxygen is present
87
What are ribosomes?
2 subunit organelle with RNA between the subunits that assembles proteins from the intracellular amino acids
88
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
a series of channels in 2 types: rough & smooth
89
What is the difference between the rough ER & smooth ER?
rough: has ribosomes attached & modifies newly formed proteins; smooth: no ribosomes attached & it manufactures specific lipids such as cholesterol
90
What is the golgi body/apparatus?
disc shaped; packages newly made proteins for export
91
What is the lysosome?
spherical structures that store molecules such as high-powered enzymes (called lysozymes)
92
What is the nucleus?
usually 1 centrally located structure; some cells have many or none
93
What is the nuclear membrane?
a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell; it fuses in spots to make nuclear pores so materials can pass in & out of nucleus
94
What is nucleoplasm?
cytoplasm that is within the nucleus
95
What are nucleoli?
dark regions in the nucleus where ribosomes are made
96
What are histone proteins?
structures that the DNA is wrapped around (like a spool of thread); DNA & RNA are housed in the nucleus
97
What is the cytoskeleton?
the proteins within the cell that act as a skeleton
98
What are the different parts of the cytoskeleton?
microfilament, intermediate fibers, thick filaments, & microtubule
99
What is the microfilament?
thin hair-like proteins that pass through the cytoplasm; it prevents the cell from tearing
100
What are the intermediate fibers?
thin proteins that have organelles & macromolecules attached; they move these items through the cytoplasm (like a clothes line)
101
What are the thick filaments?
thick proteins that enable cellular contraction
102
What are the microtubules?
tiny yet thick tubes that provide structure & a passageway for molecules
103
What is glycocalyx?
sticky carbs; membrane carbs are sticky & allow cells to adhere
104
What are desmosomes?
when cells membranes fuse in spots; these are abundant in cells that undergo mechanical stress (skin, muscles, uterus)
105
What is a gap junction?
when membranes of adjacent cells form passageways that hold cells together yet allow stuff to pass from one cell to the next
106
Where can gap junctions be found?
in heart muscle that forms intercalated disks; in embryonic tissues where connexons allow material to pass from cell to cell
107
What is a tight junction?
barrier substance that prevents materials from leaking between cells (in intestinal lining)
108
What is histology?
the study of tissues; there are only 4 types in the body
109
What is the epithelium?
covers body surfaces; lines hollow tubes, organs, & cavities; forms glands (sweat)
110
What is epithelium made of & how is it classified?
cells close together with only a little ECF between them; each cell has 1 centrally located nucleus; classified by cell shape & number of layers
111
Epithelium is avascular; what does this mean?
no blood vessels penetrate these tissues
112
What are the shapes of epithelial tissue?
squamous= flat & scale-like; cuboidal= box-shaped; columnar= rectangular and usually have a ciliates apical surface; transitional= variable shape that allows stretching
113
What is the apical surface?
the surface exposed to the environment
114
What is the basal surface?
the surface attached to what is underneath
115
What are the different layers of epithelial tissue?
simple= 1 cell layer thick; stratified= many cell layers thick; pseudostratified= 1 layer of cells that share the basal surface but are varying heights so it looks like multiple layers
116
What does “brush border” refer to?
the fuzzy appearance of cilia
117
What is connective tissue?
it connects body parts physically or physiologically; made of cells that are scattered apart in abundant extracellular matrix
118
What can the extracellular matrix be in connective tissue?
it can be liquid (blood), semi-solid (fat), slick (cartilage), or hard (bone)
119
Fibers of protein may be present in the matrix of connective tissue; what are these fibers like?
they may be parallel (ligaments), which gives strength; they may criss-cross forming a grid deep to the skin; they may be stretchy & made of elastin (tendons)
120
Do all types of connective tissues contain fibers?
no; many lack them & are very smooth
121
What is muscular tissue?
can respond to stimulus & contract, stretch, & return to its original state (recoil)
122
What are the 3 kinds of muscles?
skeletal, smooth, & cardiac
123
What are skeletal muscles?
made of cylinder shaped cells with many nuclei along the edges (peripheral located; multinucleate)
124
What are smooth muscles?
made of spindle shaped cells with one central nucleus per cell; located in the walls of hollow organs (stomach, bladder, uterus, etc.)
125
What is peristalsis?
occurs when smooth muscle contracts; contents of the organ are moved in a wavelike fashion
126
What is cardiac muscle?
found in the walls of the heart; made of branched interwoven cells for strength; joined together by lots of desmosomes & special gap junctions called intercalated disks that help coordinate contraction
127
What is nervous tissue?
made of cells called neurons that can generate, send, & respond to electrical stimuli & to chemicals called neurotransmitters
128
Which type of tissue provides one of our body’s major control mechanisms?
nervous tissue
