exam 1 blueprint Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
tnm staging
A
a system for classifying the extent of cancer
2
Q
tnm staging
t = ?
A
tumor
3
Q
tnm staging
n = ?
A
lymph node
4
Q
tnm staging
m = ?
A
metastasis
5
Q
grade 1
A
well differentiated; tumor cells look like normal tissue cells; low grade
6
Q
grade 2
A
moderately differentiated; somewhat abnormal; intermediate grade
7
Q
grade 3
A
poorly differentiated; most of the cells look abnormal; high grade
8
Q
grade 4
A
undifferentiated; all or most abnormal / anaplastic cells; highest grade
9
Q
Liquefaction necrosis
A
necrosis where dead cells liquify; seen in brain tissue
10
Q
Caseous necrosis
A
necrosis with a cottage cheese appearance; seen with TB
11
Q
fat necrosis
A
necrosis that has a chalky look; seen with breast injury / acute pancreatitis
12
Q
Coagulative necrosis
A
necrosis due to interrupted blood flow; affects kidney / heart / adrenal glands
13
Q
Gangrene
A
a form of coagulative necrosis due to insufficient blood supply
14
Q
PKU (Phenylketonuria)
A
a genetic disorder diagnosed prenatally or at 3-day-old serum screening, caused by a deficiency in phenylalanine hydroxylase.
15
Q
what is phenylalanine hydroxylase
A
an enzyme that converts phenylalanine into tyrosine. This reaction is the first step in breaking down phenylalanine, an amino acid that comes from food and artificial sweeteners.
16
Q
down syndrome
A
A genetic disorder characterized by three copies of chromosome 21, leading to various physical and developmental issues.
17
Q
Klinefelter Syndrome
A
A genetic condition in males characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXY).
18
Q
Neurofibromatosis
A
An incurable genetic disorder that causes tumors to grow on nerves.
19
Q
Atrophy
A
A cellular adaptation where cells decrease in size and number due to decreased workload.
20
Q
Hypertrophy
A
A cellular adaptation where cells increase in size due to increased workload.
21
Q
Hyperplasia
A
An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, often compensatory or hormonal.
22
Q
Metaplasia
A
A pathologic replacement of normal cells with the incorrect normal cells.
23
Q
Dysplasia
A
A pathologic mutation of normal cells into abnormal cells, often precancerous.
24
Q
gene
A
segment of DNA that is a template for protein synthesis (mild to chronic)
25
Allele
single gene that has many variants
26
DNA
long chain of nucleotides called chromosomes (23 pairs)
27
Autosome
22 sets of paired chromosomes
28
Sex chromosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes (23rd pair)
29
Karyotype
person's unique set of chromosomes
30
Phenotype
physical expression of karyotype
31
Homozygous
having two identical alleles for a particular gene
32
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a particular gene
33
Benign tumors
cancers that are slow, progressive, localized, defined and differentiated (specific); causes problems due to location
34
Malignant tumors
cancers that are rapid, metastatic, undifferentiated (not specific), and fatal
35
Nociceptive pain
most common type of pain; further classified as somatic or visceral pain
36
Somatic pain
results from noxious stimuli to the skin, joints, muscles, and tendons; generally easy to pinpoint ('right here')
37
Visceral pain
results from noxious stimuli to internal organs; usually vague and diffuse; hard to pinpoint
38
Referred pain
sensed on body surfaces at distant locations from the originating organ
39
Phantom pain
exists after removal of a body part; severed neurons may result in spontaneous firing of spinal cord neurons because normal sensory input has been lost
40
Intractable pain
chronically progressing pain that is unrelenting and severely debilitating; does not usually respond well to typical pharmacologic pain treatments
41
Neuropathic pain
results from damage to peripheral nerves by disease or injury; tends to be both chronic and intractable
42
Acute pain
short-term pain; comes on suddenly; lasts hours to days, less than 6 months
43
Chronic pain
pain that lasts for more than 6 months, even after original injury has healed
44
Innate immunity
provides immediate protection and is non-specific (provides protection against all invaders)
45
Acquired (Adaptive) immunity
can take 7-10 days to provide protection; is specific to the antigen
46
Infancy
Based on maternal IgG for 3 to 6 months (not fully developed), granting temporary passive immunity, but transferred antibodies bind weakly to antigen.
47
Breastfeeding
Can transfer IgA; vaccinations grant additional protection (from the mom).
48
Adolescence
Hormonal changes impact the immune system as B cells (Cytokines) and macrophages have hormone receptors.
49
Immune dimorphism
The sexes respond differently to infection/vaccination.
50
Old age
Decreases immune response in immune senescence (not as good).
51
Comorbidity
Significantly impacts immunity and autoimmune disorders become more likely due to misinterpretation of signals flooding the body; can't tell self from non-self.
52
Type 1/I hypersensitivity
IgE mediated; immediate, local or systemic (all over the body).
53
Type 2/II hypersensitivity
Tissue-specific/cytotoxic; involves destruction of a single cell; IgG or IgM antibodies bind to antigen on individual's own cells and destroys it.
54
Type 3/III hypersensitivity
Immune complex-mediated; delayed, local, or systemic; circulating antigen-antibody complexes accumulate in tissue, triggering the complement system's inflammatory response.
55
Type 4/IV hypersensitivity
Cell-mediated/delayed-type; delayed, two phases: sensitizing and effector.
56
Cell-mediated/delayed-type; delayed, two phases: sensitizing and effector.
A model describing the body's response to stress in three stages: alert, resistance, and exhaustion.
57
Alert stage
The 'fight or flight' response (sympathetic).
58
Resistance stage
Adapt or NOT.
59
Exhaustion stage
Exhaustion stage
60
Exhaustion stage
Vascular reaction from damage or trauma to body tissue; nondiscriminatory: same sequence regardless of cause, local and systemic effects.
61
Acute phase of inflammation
Hours to days after injury, until threat is eliminated; includes erythema (redness), edema (swelling), heat, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, phagocytosis, and fibrinogen.
62
Chronic phase of inflammation
Weeks to months; if acute does not resolve issue, lasts until healing is complete; often occurs in presence of resistant organisms.
63
Granuloma
Mass of tissue that contains macrophages (WBC) and lymphocytes; tries to separate and contain the infection.
64
Granulation tissue
Mixture of new vasculature and fibroblasts that produces connective fibers and collagen (fills in wound).
65
IgG
main defense against bacteria
66
IgM
main defense against bacteria
67
IgA
important in local immunity
68
IgE
allergic reaction
69
IgD
helps anchor cell membranes
70
Hyperacute tissue rejection
nearly immediate, due to complement system, causes permanent necrosis
71
Acute tissue rejection
occurs within 3 months, is treatable, and manifests in fever, edema, etc.
72
Chronic tissue rejection
from 4 months on, antibody-mediated, due to ischemia in vessel walls of transplanted tissue
73
HIV
a retrovirus infecting CD4 and macrophages
74
Type 1 HIV
most common strain
75
Type 2 HIV
more common in West Africa; progressive to disease more slowly
76
HIV transmission
transmitted via blood and bodily fluids; expecting mothers risk infecting their child
77
CD4+ cells
cells that HIV invades, converts viral RNA to DNA, and compromises the cell
78
Immunodeficiency
opportunistic infections
79
Autoimmunity
pneumonitis/arthritis
80
Neurologic dysfunction
AIDS dementia/HIV encephalopathy/neuropathies
81
Symptoms of HIV
weight loss and fever; draw blood to confirm (months to years
82
Nucleic acid test (NAT)
detects viral load; number of viral particles per ML of blood
83
Antigen/antibody tests
detect antigen p24 in blood or saliva, often administered with NAT
84
CD4 cell count Category 1
> 500 cells/mm3
85
CD4 cell count Category 2
200-499 cells/mm3
86
CD4 cell count Category 3
< 200 (diagnosis of AIDS)
87
Normal CD4 count
500-1600 cells/mm3
88
Category A (clinical presentation)
asymptomatic
89
Category B (clinical presentation)
some less-serious manifestations of immunodeficiency
90
Category C (clinical presentation)
AIDS-defining illness present
91
HAART
combination therapy is best for managing symptoms
92
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)
medications that decrease transmission risk by 90%
93
Post-exposure (PEP)
medications to prevent HIV after potential exposure
94
Anemia
common disorder of the erythrocytes that impairs the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity and creates tissue hypoxia
95
Iron-deficiency anemia
most common type of anemia where the supply of iron is inadequate to meet the demands of hemoglobin production
96
Pernicious anemia
Vitamin B12 deficiency (required for DNA synthesis), usually caused by an autoimmune lack of intrinsic factor made by the stomach
97
Aplastic anemia
bone marrow depression of all blood cells (pancytopenia) often idiopathic, autoimmune, medical, viral, or genetic in origin
98
Hemolytic anemia
excessive erythrocyte destruction or hemolysis
99
Sickle cell anemia
inherited codominant disorder in which erythrocytes are crescent/sickle-shaped
100
Thalassemia
autosomal dominant inheritance with abnormal hemoglobin due to a lack of either alpha or beta globin
101
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
hypocoagulation due to autoimmune destruction of platelets
102
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
caused by deficiency in the enzyme that cleaves von Willebrand's factor, leading to hypercoagulation that depletes platelet levels
103
Decreased iron intake/absorption
one of the causes of iron-deficiency anemia
104
Cyanotic sclera
blue-tinted eyes, an additional manifestation of iron-deficiency anemia
105
Complete blood count
diagnostic test used to identify low hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCV, MCHC in anemia
106
Supplemental iron intake
treatment for iron-deficiency anemia that includes iron pills
107
Vitamin B12
required for DNA synthesis, deficiency leads to pernicious anemia
108
Positive Babinski's sign
a manifestation of pernicious anemia indicating neurological involvement
109
Bone marrow biopsy
diagnostic procedure used in aplastic anemia to assess bone marrow function
110
Sickle cell crises
painful episodes of tissue ischemia and necrosis associated with sickle cell anemia
111
Hydration
a treatment strategy for sickle cell anemia to avoid sickling triggers
112
Genetic counseling
part of the treatment for sickle cell anemia to inform about inheritance patterns
113
Glucocorticoid steroids
a treatment option for immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
114
Plasmapheresis
a treatment for thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) that cleans the blood
115
Oxygen therapy
a treatment for aplastic anemia to manage symptoms
116
Blood transfusion
a treatment option for aplastic anemia and TTP to manage low blood cell counts
117
Jaundice
a manifestation of thalassemia indicating liver involvement
118
Hematocrit
a measure of the proportion of blood volume that is occupied by red blood cells
119
Thrombocytopenia
low platelet count, a symptom of various types of anemia
120
Leukocytopenia
low white blood cell count, a symptom of aplastic anemia
121
Pica
a condition associated with iron-deficiency anemia where the individual craves non-food items
122
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
life-threatening complication of many conditions springing from an inappropriate immune response.
123
Widespread coagulation
massive bleeding due to the depletion of clotting factors
124
Causes of DIC
blood transfusion reaction, cancer, sepsis, OB complications, and venomous snake bite.
125
Manifestations of DIC
tissue ischemia and abnormal bleeding.
126
Complications of DIC
shock, multisystem organ failure, and death.
127
Diagnosis of DIC
complete blood count and bleeding studies.
128
Treatment of DIC
identify and treat underlying cause, replenish clotting components, and prevention of clots and treatment of bleeding.
129
Hodgkin's lymphoma
less common; solid tumors contain Reed-Sternberg cells often originating in lymph nodes of the upper body.
130
Manifestations of Hodgkin's lymphoma
painless enlarged nodes, night sweats, pruritis, and splenomegaly.
131
Diagnosis of Hodgkin's lymphoma
imaging, Reed-Sternberg cells found in biopsy, and complete blood counts.
132
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
more common, with poor prognosis among the many subtypes
133
Hemophilia A
a mild to severe X-linked recessive bleeding disorder caused by deficiency or abnormality in clotting factor VIII.
134
Prevalence of Hemophilia A
1:5,000 male births; rare in females.
135
Manifestations of Hemophilia A
bleeding or signs of bleeding (bruising, petechia, GI bleed, and hematuria).
136
Diagnosis of Hemophilia A
genetic testing, clotting studies and serum factor VIII or IX levels.
137
Leukemia
cancer of the leukocytes (WBC), the second most common blood cancer after lymphomas.
138
Risk factors for Leukemia
mutagens (chemical, viral, and radiation), smoking, chemotherapies, other diseases, and immunodeficiencies.
139
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
most common type, affects primarily children, responds well to therapy, and has a good prognosis
140
Manifestations of Leukemia
Leukopenia, anemia, thrombocytopenia, lymphadenopathy, joint swelling, bone pain, weight loss, and anorexia.
141
Multiple Myeloma
cancer of the plasma cells characterized by excessive numbers of abnormal plasma in the bone marrow.
142
Manifestations of Multiple Myeloma
anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, decreased bone density, persistent bone pain, hypercalcemia, and renal impairment.
143
Diagnosis of Multiple Myeloma
serum and urine protein, calcium, renal function tests, complete blood count, biopsy, and imaging.
144
Survival rate for Multiple Myeloma
3 to 5 years.
