Exam 1 - Ch.1/2/3/7 Flashcards
(196 cards)
1
Q
Psychology
A
study of human thoughts/behavior
2
Q
Social Psychology
A
study of way one’s thoughts/feelings/behaviors are influenced by real OR imagined presence of other people
3
Q
Empirical view
A
answers from experimentations
4
Q
Social Psychology founder
A
Lewin in USA to understand Nazi Germany
5
Q
Construal
A
how people perceive/interpret social world
6
Q
Goal of social psychology
A
- identify universal laws of human behavior (regardless of class/culture)
- understand how the situation affects choices
7
Q
Weakness of social psychology
A
not tested against many other cultures
solution: cross-cultural research
8
Q
Sociology compared to Social Psych
A
sociology focus = group/society
commonality = interest in how situation/larger context influences behavior
9
Q
Personality psych compared to social psych
A
personality focus on individual differences (ignores social influence)
commonality: interest in psychology of the individual
10
Q
Evolutionary psychology
A
use genetics over time (NS) to explain social behavior
- can test today’s behavior but not the long process
11
Q
Social influence
A
effect that words/actions/presence of other people have on thoughts, feelings, behavior
12
Q
Fundamental Attribution Error
A
tendency to explain own/other’s behaviors by personality differences rather than power of social influence/situation
- ‘could never happen to me’
13
Q
Behaviorism
A
explaining behavior by environment/reinforcement
NO cognition/construals
14
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
stresses importance of subjective way object appears rather than object attributes
- duck vs. rabbit
15
Q
Naive Realism
A
we perceive things as really are - underestimate own bias/interpretation
16
Q
2 Basic human motives
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Self esteem motive: need to feel good about ourselves, impedes change
Social cognition movie: need to be accurate
17
Q
Reactions to social pscyh
A
personal reflection: ‘not what I’d do’
hindsight bias: ‘once know outcome, easy to predict’
18
Q
Scientific method steps
A
Develop theory, develop hypotheses, design study, collect/analyze data, refine/replicate theory
19
Q
Theory
A
related assumptions or explanations about a phenomena (WHY and under WHAT conditions it occurs
20
Q
Theory and hypothesis e.g.
A
T: playing violent media leads to higher aggression
H: predict kids assigned violent vs nonviolent will act more aggressively on my DV
21
Q
Observation (general)
A
description, used for ideas based on behavior, natural setting,
22
Q
Observation limitations
A
participant reactivity and subjectivity of researcher (interpreting), uncontrolled settings
23
Q
Participant reactivity (define and address)
A
react differently knowing they’re being watched, no consent
Address by ethnography
24
Q
Subjectivity of researcher
A
address by multiple observers w/agreement about code set of data
- interjudge reliability
25
Correlational research (general)
identify NATURAL relationship b/t variables
| lots of data, large sample size, info on many variables
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Correlation limitations (3)
question effects (scale/wording), non-representative sample, false responses (social desirability)
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Solution to non-representative sample
```
random sampling (everyone in pop. has = chance of selection)
avoid convenience (college sophomore problem)
```
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Critical Thinking
don't accept conclusions briefly, examine/evaluate/assess, is it good research?
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Correlation Coefficient (r)
extent 2 factors predict each other (-1.00-+1.00)
| (+) - same (-) opposite
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Other explanations for correlation
- third variable (e.g. ice cream and crime (+) is due to temperature not causal)
- reverse direction - can't tell which is directing which
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IV
min. 2 levels, effect being studied
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DV
hypothesized to change in response to IV change
| outcome being studied
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Controlling experiment environment
prevent other confounding variables (e.g. hr slept before/past behavior)
- random assignment
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Random assignment
equal chance of being in any experimental condition
- difference in personality distributed evenly
- for IV
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If there wasn't random assignment
if chose groups, individual differences could explain the change in DV rather than IV
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Confounding variable
anything could cause change in DV that is not IV
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Key aspects/strengths of experiment
- 1+ variables manipulated, extraneous variables controlled through random assignment
- researcher control, study causation
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Operational definitions
specific procedures for manipulating a conceptual variable
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Limitations of experimental research
- some variables can't be manipulated/are unethical to do so
| - controlled procedures can lack realism
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Single blind
participant no know what group in
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Double blind
participant NOR researcher know what group participant is in
| - most
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Triple blind
participant, researcher, and data analysis no know conditions participants are in
- ideal
43
Experimenter expectancy effects; how to prevent
when experimenter's expectations about results affect their behavior toward participant; thus influence participants' responses
- prevent w/blind
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Between-subject design
each participant participates in one and only group/treatment
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Within-subjects design
each participant participates in more than 1 group
| - less people to pay
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Problem w/within subjects design
carryover effects from one trial to next, do better second time, deception gone b/c know what results about
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External validity
extent to which findings generalize to other people/settings, IV/DVs (representative sample, replication)
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Field experiments/problem
lab to real setting, not told experiment, higher EV
| - hard to control extraneous variables, random assignment, AND random selection
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Internal validity
extent to which can draw conclusions about cause and effect (good design/confound controls)
50
Problem w/Internal validity
can't control participants personality/knowledge
| solve w/random assignment
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probability level (p-value)
how likely results occured by chance and not IV
| - <0.05 then chance
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EV - generalizability across situation
try for realistic lab settings
max psychological realism
use deception
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Psychological realism
how similar psychological processes triggered in experiment are to psychological processes in everyday life
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EV- generalizability across people
Midwesterners vs NYers, college vs middle aged, et.c
| -is the psychological process universal?
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Basic dilemma of social psychologist
trade off b/t IV and EV
| - solve - do some lab some field to get both
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Replication
test EV w/different setting/population
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Meta analysis
averages results of 2+ studies to see if effect of IV is reliable
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Basic research
goal = find best answer of questions of why people behave as do; intellectual curiosity
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Applied research
goal = solve a particular social problem e.g. racism
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Cross-cultural research
test universibility
- try no impose own viewpoints/definitions unto another culture
- ensure interpretation of situation/variables are same
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EEG
electrodes in scalp measuring electrical activity
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fMRI
measure changes in blood flow in brain
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Deception
misleading participants about true purpose
| - if necessary to test hypothesis
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Debriefing
after, to explain true purpose, try to undo discomfort
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Institutional Review Board (IRB)
one scientist, one nonscientist, one person nonaffiliated w/institution,, review proposal and decides if ethical
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Random sampling
use when choosing participants to generalize to population
| - for EV
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Ethnography
observation from inside, w/out imposing any preconceived notions
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Archival analysis
examine accumulated documents/archives of a culture
| - can't tell effect on cognition/emotions
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survey
good for difficult to observe variables, sample different populations, bias survey method
"telling more than you know" can't always predict how you would act
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Conceptual replication
changes some variable (e.g. type of object in driver's seat) to see similar results
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Exact replication
change nothing to get same effect
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Media reports of research - Problems
drawing causation from correlation, small sample size, nonrandom assignment, lack of control, broad implications
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Where do theories come from
when unsatisfied w/previous conclusions
| from personal observations
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Social cognition
study of how people think/feel about themselves and social world
- how use social info to make decisions
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Automatic thinking
non-conscious, unintentional, involuntary, effortless thinking
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Low effect
automatic thinking, unintentional, effortless, non-conscious (driving a familiar route)
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High effort
controlled, intentional (studying), voluntary
| - correct for low effort mistakes
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Purpose of automatic thinking
too much info to take in everything, more efficient, past experience provides filter for new things, fitting in
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What does cognitive misers refer to
need shortcuts to understand social world
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Disadvantage of automatic thinking
errors; treat others negatively based on automatic stereotypes/schema they/situation fit
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Schema
mental structures help us organize knowledge about social world and interpret new situations
- change over time
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e.g of using schema
use DC metro to generalize what to expect on Switzerland metro
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Analytic thinking style
typical of western culture, focus on properties of object not context
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Holistic thinking style
typical of east asian cultures, focus on overall context, esp. ways objects relate to each other; rooted in relativity
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Korsakov's syndrome
inability to form new memories; experience everything for 'first time'
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Which schema is used?
depends on accessibility: past experience, relating to a current goal, recent experiences
- also situational cues/recency of schema activation
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Schema applied to a group is
stereotype
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Scripts
step by step order of events for a particular situation
| - gives expectations, may fill in things didn't happen
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How do schemas influence attention
if familiar w/room, notice odd, if not familiar, less attention to odd
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Priming
low effort process; recent experience increase accessibility of schema
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Priming affects
impressions of people
| behavior (immediate effects)
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Elderly stereotype study
- primed w/elderly
- stereotype/neutral world in sentence
assessed walking speed in/out
- elderly word group = slower
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Self-fulfilling prophecies
1. perceiver develops false belief about target
2. perceiver treats target in manner consistent w/false belief
3. target responds to treatment in way that confirms false belief
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e.g. of self-fulfilling prophecy
told teachers there's a test that identifies bloomers in class, planted positive expectations, bloomers had more IQ gains
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Why does self fulfilling prophecy of teachers happen
provide better social climate/support/feedback unconsciously
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Confirmation bias
tendency to interpret/seek/create info that verifies our preexisting beliefs/schemas
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Automatic goal pursuit
help struggle kid that could hurt my own chances of an A?
| - choose based on goal primed last
98
Heuristics
shortcuts to make judgements about frequencies of past events and likelihood of future events
- can lead to errors
99
Availability heuristic
base judgement on how easily can bring something to mind
| - rate how assertive 6 vs 12
100
Availability bias
freaking about ebola b/c news, rather than alcohol/obesity
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Representativeness heuristic
tendency to assume that someone/thing belongs to a particular group if similar to a typical member
102
Problem w/representativeness heuristic
focus on individual characteristics more than base rate (how often X occurs)
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Expected associations
played roulette and red last 8x but red still not more likely than black
104
Anchoring and adjustment
people make estimate of value by starting from initial value and adjusting
105
Anchoring and adjustment e.g.
judge/penalty - consider harshest decision first - judge harder than if less intense first
106
Counterfactual thinking
mentally changing an aspect of past/imagining what might have been
- mix of automatic and controlled
107
Schema applied to a group is
stereotype
108
Scripts
step by step order of events for a particular situation
| - gives expectations, may fill in things didn't happen
109
How do schemas influence attention
if familiar w/room, notice odd, if not familiar, less attention to odd
110
Priming
low effort process; recent experience increase accessibility of schema
111
Priming affects
impressions of people
| behavior (immediate effects)
112
Elderly stereotype study
- primed w/elderly
- stereotype/neutral world in sentence
assessed walking speed in/out
- elderly word group = slower
113
Self-fulfilling prophecies
1. perceiver develops false belief about target
2. perceiver treats target in manner consistent w/false belief
3. target responds to treatment in way that confirms false belief
114
e.g. of self-fulfilling prophecy
told teachers there's a test that identifies bloomers in class, planted positive expectations, bloomers had more IQ gains
115
Why does self fulfilling prophecy of teachers happen
provide better social climate/support/feedback unconsciously
116
Confirmation bias
tendency to interpret/seek/create info that verifies our preexisting beliefs/schemas
117
Automatic goal pursuit
help struggle kid that could hurt my own chances of an A?
| - choose based on goal primed last
118
Heuristics
shortcuts to make judgements about frequencies of past events and likelihood of future events
- can lead to errors
119
Availability heuristic
base judgement on how easily can bring something to mind
| - rate how assertive 6 vs 12
120
Availability bias
freaking about ebola b/c news, rather than alcohol/obesity
121
Representativeness heuristic
tendency to assume that someone/thing belongs to a particular group if similar to a typical member
122
Problem w/representativeness heuristic
focus on individual characteristics more than base rate (how often X occurs)
123
Expected associations
played roulette and red last 8x but red still not more likely than black
124
Anchoring and adjustment
people make estimate of value by starting from initial value and adjusting
125
Anchoring and adjustment e.g.
judge/penalty - consider harshest decision first - judge harder than if less intense first
126
Counterfactual thinking
mentally changing an aspect of past/imagining what might have been
- mix of automatic and controlled
127
Upward/Downward thinking
silver imagines gold (-) vs bronze imagines nothing (+)
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When it is easier to undo an outcome,
stronger emotional reaction, enhancing thoughts of cause/effect
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Free Will Theories
- thought and action are correlated, not cause - driven by priming/desire
- important to believe for self-preservation
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Planning fallacy
tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how soon will complete a project - even when failed similarly in past
131
What discipline improves statistical reasoning
psychology
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Attitude
evaluation of person/object/idea
| - can be indirect function of genes, results of temperament and personality
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Tripartite model
Affective, behavioral, and cognitive components
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Affective component, e.g.
+/- feeling about attitude object (emotional) e.g. running calms me
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What does affective component involve
values (religious/moral), sensory reaction, looks, conditioning
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Behavioral component, e.g.
behavioral reaction (how act) to object e.g. I try to run every day
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Cognitive component
cognitive representation that summarizes one's evaluation of object (thoughts and beliefs) e.g. running can lead to positive health outcomes
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Explicit attitudes
consciously endorse, can easily report
| - direct measure - "how do you feel about this"
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Implicit attitudes
involuntary, sometimes unconscious evaluations
| - root in childhood experiences
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How to measure implicit attitudes
Implicit attitude test
| - get at hidden biases not hidden behind social desirability
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Why attitudes are important
strong influence on way we process/ think about social info
| influence our behavior sometimes (+ about honesty but not always best in situation)
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LaPiere experiment
visit places w/chinese couple, only denied service once, sent surveys later asking if would serve chinese, most said no
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Problems w/LaPiere experiment
asking after the fact/asking about different situation than occurred (w/white man), could have different people responding to each, lacking respondence
- should measure attitudes BEFORE behaviors
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Predicting spontaneous behaviors
attitude can predict when highly accessible/strong association b/t attitude and object (measure w/speed)
- more direct experience; quicker to form attitude
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Predicting deliberate behaviors
theory of planned behavior - when have time to think, best predictor of behavior = intention
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What influences intention in theory of planned behavior
- attitude toward specific behavior
- subjective norms (how others will care)
- perceived behavioral control (ease people believe can perform behavior)
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Attitudes predict behavior better when...
less time elapsed b/t measure of each, weak situational pressures, attitude is important, strongly supported, formed w/controlled processing, measuring exact attitude w/exact behavior (no general)
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How do situational pressures affect attitude
alters priorities and may not always act as believe when others are watching
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Cognitive dissonance theory
people behave inconsistently w/attitudes and cannot be justified by external circumstances, THEN attitudes change
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Why does cognitive dissonance theory work
threatens own self-image about being decent/honest
| - need internal justification to change mind
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Persuasion
attitude change as result of info processing, often in response to messages about attitude object
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Yale Attitude Change Approach
effectiveness of persuasive communications depends on who say what to whom
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Speaker credibility
expertise (credentials/knowledge) and trust (confidence vs self interest)
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Self interest of speaker
giving bias, getting paid, have ax to grind so not best resource
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When distracted (peripheral)
credibility influences attitude more, argument quality doesn't matter
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Speaker attractiveness
similarity and physical appeal
| - usually peripheral, can be central when relevant to product quality (cosmetics)
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Message discrepancy
how extreme a position maximizes an attitude change; moderate = best, too extreme = rejections/refute
158
Message reason vs emotion
arousing both + and - feelings can lead to attitude change e.g. eating
positive - peripheral (easy influenced) negative - fear appeals to scare into action
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Fear appeals consist of
threat - personal/vivid, 'it can happen to me and is a threat to my health'
efficacy - explains how to do response/evidence why is effective to reduce fear
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Response efficacy
belief the advocated response works
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Self-efficacy
perceived ability to perform the response
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Amount of fear in message
too much - tune out, moderate = best, too little - doesn't grab attention
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when is it better to acknowledge both viewpoints in message
if undecided, knows opposing views, has knowledge
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When is it better to acknowledge one side in message
if audience already agrees, unaware of opposing views, less knowledge
165
Central route factors
high motivation, relevant issue, knowledgable, no distraction, good argument quality, long lasting, more predictive
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Peripheral route factors
low motivation, irrelevant issue, little prior knowledge, distracted, #/length of arguments over quality, less long lasting, speaker characteristics, consensus
167
Audience involvement and relevance
more relevant = central (higher motivation)
| ability to be involved and engaged in message (not above comprehension level)
168
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
how persuasion can change attitudes - central vs. peripheral
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Central route to persuasion
fully engaged w/content, high effort/more controlled processing, use logic
170
Peripheral route to persuasion
no elaboration, swayed by superficial cues, temporary attitude change, use low effort processes as cues
171
Heuristic-systematic model of persuasion:
peripheral route, use heuristics, error prone
| - happy (affected by weak msg.), sad (need strong to sway)
172
Best way to change attitude
change with approach of ABCs used
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Subliminal messages
words/images not consciously perceived but may influence judgement/attitude/behaviors
174
Western ads = individuality
Asian ads = interdependence and social groups (more celebs)
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Attitude inoculation
think about pro/con of argument before using so not surprised
176
Other ways to resist attitude change
be alert to product placement, resist peer pressure w/emotional attitude inoculation against friends about dangerous behaviors
177
Reciprocity
social expectation that people respond in kind (guilt if not)
> compliance if given gift e.g. store samples
178
Concessions
make large request (refused), make modest request (concession/favor), compliance = reciprocal concession
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Door in the face technique
following up an extravagant request w/reasonable one so guilty subject complies
180
That's not all technique
start large, add details/gifts, offer discount, start high price then reduce
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Commitment and consistency
based on cognitive dissonance, desire to be and appear consistent w/what we have already done e.g. please watch my things
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Low ball
make very attractive offer to gain compliance, make terms of offer less favorable e.g. all inclusive trip adds fees
183
Foot in the door
present small request first, followed by larger
184
Social proof
can view a behavior as more correct in a given situation to degree that we see others performing it e.g. pre-tip
185
Liking
compliance more likely if like the person
| impacts of compliments/similarity/cooperation
186
Scarcity
psychological reactance, e.g. limited time only
187
psychological reactance:
we want what we cannot have
| what is unique and what do customers have to lose
188
Tupperware/jewelry/skincare parties
use reciprocity, social proof, liking, commitment and consistency
189
Authority
helps increase compliance b/t in position of power/knowledgable (perceived or real)
190
Psychological reactance theory
challenge for fear appeals - message received as threat to freedom to engage in that behavior
- enjoy freedoms, expect to be able to engage in freedoms, when threatened, reactance aroused, do behavior to reduce it
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what does psychological reactance theory depend on
importance of freedom, # freedoms threatened, strength of message
192
Romeo and juliet effect
parental influence increases intensity of romance
193
warning labels
increase desire of those who don't meet restrictions (e.g. age)
194
message restriction
more agreement if restricted - want to hear/buy product more
195
College drinking and reactance
tell either no more drinking or less drinking
| heaviest drinkers had strongest reaction/drank most in response
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Reactance takeaway
be careful in designing health messages - can backfire in groups we are most interested in changing behavior
