Exam 1 (ch1-3) Flashcards
(371 cards)
1
Q
How many parts does a medical term have and list them?
A
Three: a prefix, the word root, and a suffix
2
Q
Define the combining form alg(o), algae, algesi(o)
A
Pain —> example myalgia = pain in a muscle
3
Q
Define the combining form arth(o)
A
Joint —> example arthritis = inflammation of a joint
4
Q
Define the combining form bacteri(o)
A
Bacteria —> example bacteriuria = bacteria in the urine
5
Q
Define the combining form cerebr(o)
A
Cerebrum —> example cerebrovascular = relating to the blood vessels of the brain
6
Q
Define the combining form cyan(o)
A
Blue —> example cyanosis = blue discoloration of the skin from a lack of oxygen
7
Q
Define the combining form dermat(o), derm(o)
A
Skin —> example dermatologist = physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the skin
8
Q
Define the combining form erythr(o)
A
Red —> example erythrocyte = red blood cell
9
Q
Define the combining form gluc(o)
A
Sugar, glucose —> example glucosuria = sugar in the urine
10
Q
Define the combining form leuk(o)
A
White —> example leukemia = a white blood cell cancer
11
Q
Define the combining form melan(o)
A
Black—> example melanocyte = a cell responsible for producing skin pigment
12
Q
Define the combining form myel(o)
A
Spinal cord —> example myelopathy = disease affecting the spinal cord
13
Q
Define the combining form pancreat(o)
A
Pancreas —> example pancreatitis = inflammation of the pancreas
14
Q
Define the combining form poli(o)
A
Gray —> example Poliomyelitis = inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord
15
Q
What is the word root of a medical term ?
A
It is the foundation of a word that gives it meaning. The word root describes the part of the body or organ involved. Example: cardi = heart, gastr = stomach, neur = nerve.
16
Q
What is a combining form?
A
When word roots are combined with a vowel at the end (often with “o”) so that a suffix beginning with a consonant can be added.
17
Q
What are the rules for using combining form vowels?
A
- A combining vowel is used when the suffix begins with a consonant. For example, when the word root hem(o), mean-
ing blood, is combined with the suffix –lysis, meaning destruction, the combining vowel “o” is used because -lysis be-
gins with a consonant. Hemolysis is a medical term that describes the destruction of red blood cells. - A combining vowel is not used when the suffix already begins with a vowel. For example, when neur(o), meaning
nerve, is combined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, no combining vowel is used because -itis already be-
gins with a vowel. Neuritis is a medical term that means an inflammation of a nerve or nerves. - A combining vowel is used when two or more word roots are joined. Gastroenteritis means inflammation of the stom-
ach and the small intestine. It combines the word roots gastr(o), meaning stomach, and enter(o) meaning small intes-
tine. A combining vowel is not used after enter(o) because it is joined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, which
already begins with a vowel.
18
Q
What is a prefix?
A
A prefix is added to the beginning of the word to influence the meaning of the word root. Prefixes usually indicate the location, time, number, or status.
19
Q
Define the prefix peri-
A
Around —> example Pericardium = membranous sac around the heart
20
Q
Define the prefix epi-
A
Above —> example Epigastric = area above the stomach
21
Q
Define the prefix poly-
A
Many —> example Polyneuritis= inflammation of many nerves
22
Q
Define the prefix hemi-
A
Half —> example Hemiplegia= paralysis affecting one side of the body only
23
Q
Define the prefix endo-
A
Inside —> example endocrine = secreting into the inside of the body
24
Q
Define the prefix exo-
A
Outside —> example exocrine = secreting onto the outside of the body
25
Define the prefix intra-
Inside —> example intracellular = inside a cell
26
Define the prefix extra-
Outside —> example extracellular = outside of a cell
27
What is important for prefixes to have?
To have contrasting or opposing meanings
28
Define prefix ab- and it’s contrasting prefix ad-
Ab: To move away (from) —> example abduct = to move away from the midline of the body
Ad: To move toward —> example adduct = to move toward the midline of the body
29
Define the prefix dys- and it’s contrasting prefix eu-
Dys: Abnormal, difficult—> example dyspnea = difficult or labored breathing
Eu: Normal, good —> example euphoria = a state of well being
30
Define the prefix hyper- and the contrasting prefix hypo-
Hyper: Excessive, above normal —> example hypertension = high blood pressure
Hypo: Below normal—> example hypotension = low pressure
31
Define the prefix pre- and it’s contrasting prefix post-
Pre: Before —> example prenatal = before birth
Post: After —> example postmortem = after death
32
Define the prefix tachy- and it’s contrasting prefix brady-
Tachy: Fast —> example tachycardia = fast heartbeat
Brady: Slow —> example bradycardia = slow heartbeat
33
What is a suffix?
A suffix is added to the end of the word root and usually indicates a procedure, condition, disorder, or disease. A suffix can totally change the meaning of a word root.
34
Define the suffix -megaly
Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart
35
Define the suffix -algia
Pain and suffering —> example gastralgia = pain in the stomach
36
Define the suffix -itis
Inflammation —> example tonsillitis = inflammation of the tonsils
37
Define the suffix -ectomy
Surgical removal of —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils
38
A suffix can make a word root two things ?
A noun or adjective
39
Define the suffix noun -um
example cranium = part of the skull that encloses the brain
40
Define the suffix adjective endings -ac and -al
example cardiac = relating to the heart
example renal = relating to the kidney
41
Break apart the word pathology
Path(o) is the word root for disease and -ology is the suffix
-ology: the study of
pathology: the study of diseases
42
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - algia
Pain —> example neuralgia = pain in the nerves
43
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -centesis
Surgical puncture —> example abdominocentesis = surgical puncture of the abdominal cavity to remove fluid
44
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ectomy
Surgical removal —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils
45
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - itis
Inflammation—> example laryngitis = inflammation of the larynx (voice box)
46
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -lysis
Destruction —> example hemolysis = destruction of the red blood cells
47
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -malacia
Softening —> example osteomalacia = softening of the bone
48
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -megaly
Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart
49
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -necrosis
Tissue death —> example arterionecrosis = tissue death of an artery or arteries
50
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -octomy
Cutting or surgical incision —> example phlebotomy = puncture of a vein for the purpose of drawing blood
51
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -pathy
Disease or suffering —> example myopathy= disease of the muscle
52
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ptosis
Sagging or dropping —> example blepharoptosis = dropping of the upper eyelid
53
Define what a “double RRs” is.
Some suffixes begin with two letter RRs
54
Define the double R suffix -rrhage, -rrhagia
Bleeding (sudden, severe flow) —> example hemorrhage = sudden, severe loss of blood
55
Define the double R suffix -rrhaphy
Surgical suturing —> example myorrhaphy = surgical suturing of muscle
56
Define the double R suffix -rrhea
Flow (of body fluids) —> example amenorrhea = absence of menstrual flow
57
Define the double R suffix -rrhexis
Rupture —> example myorrhexis = rupture of muscle
58
Define abbreviation (also called contraction or short form)
A shortened form of a word or phase.
Example: Dr. stands for doctor and -epi for epinephrine
59
Define acronym
Is a word formed from the initial letters of other words; it is pronounced as a word.
Example: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
60
Name the term that consists of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.
Answer: symbols usually consist of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.
Example: in chemistry the letter combination “Na” is the symbol for the elements sodium
61
Define BP (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Blood pressure
62
Define bpm (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Beats per minute
63
Define Ca (symbol)
Calcium
64
Define CNS (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Central Nervous system
65
Define COPD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
66
Define CVA (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
67
Define ECG, EKG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
electrocardiogram
68
Define EEG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Electrocephalogram
69
Define GERD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
70
Define GYN (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Gynecologist
71
Define ICU
Intensive Care Unit
72
Define IM (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Intramuscular
73
Define IV (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Intravenous
74
Define KCl (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Potassium chloride
75
Define kg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Kilogram
76
Define L (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Liter
77
Define mg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Milligram
78
Define MI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Myocardial infarction
79
Define mL, ml (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Milliliter
80
Define OTC (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Over the counter
81
Define PE (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Physical exam
82
Define URI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Upper respiratory infection
83
Define eponym
A term or word based on or derived from a persons name.
Example: Lou Gehrig’s disease was named after an American baseball player who battled the disorder. The Eustachian tube connects the nose and the middle ear.
84
Define antonym
Words opposite in meaning to another.
Example: good and bad, long and short, wide and narrow
85
Define synonym
Words or phrases that have nearly the same or exact meaning as another word or phrase.
Example: shinbone and tibia, thighs bone and femur
86
Define thesaurus
A collection of words, terms, or phrases that have the same (synonyms) or opposite meaning (antonyms)
87
Define plural forms
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter ‘s’
88
List the singular and plural form of -a
singular: -a —> example: vertebrae
plural: -ae —> example: vertebrae
89
List the singular and plural form of -is
singular: -is —> example: diagnosis
plural: -es —> example: diagnoses
90
List the singular and plural form of -en
singular: -en —> example: lumen
plural: -ina —> example: lumina
91
List the singular and plural form of -ma
singular: -ma —> example: stigma
plural: -mata —> example: stigmata
92
List the singular and plural form of -on
singular: -on —> example: phenomenon
plural: -a —> example: phenomena
93
List the singular and plural form of -um
singular: -um —> example: serum
plural: -a —> example: sera
94
List the singular and plural form of -ex, -ix, -yx
singular: -ex, -ix, -yx —> example: index
plural: -ices —> example: indices
95
List the singular and plural form of -nx
singular: -nx —> example: phalanx
plural: -nges—> example: phalanges
96
List the singular and plural form of -us*
singular: -us* —> example: thrombus
plural: -i —> example: thrombi
97
List the exceptions to irregular plural forms.
Virus (viruses)
Sinus (sinuses)
Plexus (plexuses)
98
When analyzing an unfamiliar medical term, try to ?
Try to identify at least one component you may know
try: osetonecrosis (osteo:bone, necr(o), and -osis) = bone tissue death
try: epididymitis (epididym(o) + -itis) = inflammation of the epididymis
99
Define ped(o)
Relates to foot
100
Define pedi(a)
Relates to children or childhood
101
Develop a term for the cells that create a dark(black) pigment.
Prefix - Melan(o): black
Suffix - cyte: cell
Answer: melanocyte
Plural add a s
102
Develop a term for feeling incredibly good.
Combining form -phoria: mental state/feeling
Prefix - eu-: good
Answer: euphoria means feeling or a state of excitement and happiness
Example dysphoria: feeling of dissatisfaction
103
Describe standard anatomical position.
It describes the body in a standing upright position with the hands turned out so that the palms are facing forward.
Anatomists and clinicians use this standard position to describe the location of organs or body parts to each other.
104
Describe body plane
Body planes are flat surfaces along which the body or a structure is cut for anatomical or pathological study. Any diagonal cut, regardless of the plane it lies in, produces an oblique section.
105
Describe the body plane: coronal or frontal
Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
106
Describe the body plane: Transverse or horizontal
Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
107
Describe the body plane: Sagittal
Divides the body into left and right portions
108
Describe the two types of sagittal plane
Mid sagittal and parasagittal
109
Describe the body plane: Midsagittal
Divides the body into equal left and right halves
110
Describe the body plane: parasagittal
Divides the body into unequal left and right halves
111
Describe regional terms 
Designate specific areas for example they are adjectives relating to a defined structure
112
Describe directional terms
Describe the location of a structure in relation to other structures or locations
113
Describe how to remove uncertainty
Directions terms are always based on the standard atomic position
Example: The bladder is located lower than the kidney in a standing person, in other words: the bladder is inferior to the kidney
However, in a patient lying flat on his or her back the kidneys are closer to the ground in the bladder. If we didn’t use the standard atomic composition, we would have to say that the kidneys are inferior to the bladder
114
Defined the regional term abdominal
Relating to the admin
115
Defined the regional term brachial
Relating to the arm
116
Defined the regional term cervical
Relating to the neck or cervix
117
Define the regional term cranial
Relating to the cranium or skull
118
Define the regional term femoral
Relating to the femur
119
Define the regional term humeral
Relating to the upper arm or humerous
120
Define the regional term lumbar
Relating to the loins
121
Define the regional term malleloar
Relating to the ankle/malleolus or ankle region
122
Define the regional term nasal
Relating to the nose
123
Define the regional term pelvic
Relating to the pelvis
124
Define the regional term radial
Relating to the radius
125
Define the regional term spinal
Relating to the spine or spinal cord
126
Define the regional term thoraic
Relating to the thorax or chest region
127
Define the directional term anterior
Closer to the front of the body
128
Define the directional term contralateral
On opposite sides of the body
129
Define the directional term cranial
Toward the head
130
Define by directional term deep
Farther away from the surface of the body
131
Define play directional term distal
Farther away from the body
132
Define the directional term ipsilateral
On the same side of the body
133
Define directional term lateral
Away from the midline of the body
134
Define the directional term medial
Toward the midline of the body
135
Define directional term posterior
Closer to the back of the body
136
Define the directional term proximal
Nearer/closer to the body
137
Define directional term superficial
Close(r) to the surface
138
Define directional term superior
Above or higher
139
Define the combining form adip(o)
Fat or lipid —> example adipose = consisting of fat; fat
140
Define the combining form aqu(i), aqu(o), aque(o)
Water —> example aqueous = of or containing water, like water, watery
141
Define the combining form bi-
Two, twice, double —> example bilayer = a structure consisting of two layers
142
Define the combining form chem(o)
Chemistry; chemical—> example chemical = Relating to chemistry
143
Define the combining form co-
Together or with —> example cotransport = Transport of two or more substances at the same time
144
Define the combining form cyt(o)
Cell —> example cytosol = The watery component of the cytoplasm
145
Define the combining form di-
Two, twice, or double—> example disaccharide = Carbohydrate made up to sugar units
146
Define the combining form endo-
Inside —> example endogenous = Growing or originating from inside the body
147
Define the combining form ex(o)-
Outside —> example exogenous = Originating from outside the body
148
Define the combining form extra-
Outside of, beyond, or in addition to —> example Extracellular = Located outside a cell
149
Define the combining form gluc(o)
Sugar or glucose—> example gluconeogenesis = Glucose formation from non-carbohydrate precursors
150
Define the combining form glyc(o), glycos(o)
Sugar or glucose—> example glycogen = Storage form for glucose in animal cells
151
Define the combining form hydra-, hydr(o)-
Water or hydrogen —> example hydrate = A substance that contains water
152
Define the combining form inter-
Between, among —> example Intercellular = Located or happening between cells
153
Define the combining form intra-
Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside a cell
154
Define the combining form lipid(o), lip(o)
Fat or lipid —> example lipolysis = The breakdown of fats and other lipids
155
Define the combining form mono-
One or single —> example Monosaccharide = Simple carbohydrates made of one sugar unit
156
Define the combining form olig(o)
Few —> example Oligosaccharide = carbohydrate made of 3-10 sugar units
157
Define the combining form ox(i)-, ox(o)-, ox(y)-
Oxygen —> example oxygenate= Treat or enrich with oxygen
158
Define the combining form poly-
Many or much —> example Polypeptide = Protein consisting of up to 50 amino acids
159
Define the combining form prote(o)-
Protein —> example proteolysis = The breakdown of proteins or peptides
160
Defined the combining form sacchar(o)-
sugar —> example saccharose = Table sugar or sucrose
161
Define the combining form tetra-
4 —> example Tetrapeptide = protein consisting of four amino acids
162
Defined the combining form tri-
Three —> example Trisaccharide = Carbohydrates made of three sugar units
163
What are the three chemical elements of carbohydrates?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
164
Most carbohydrates contain How many hydrogens and oxygen?
They contain two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen for each carbon atom. The basic formula is CnH2nOn.
165
Write the formula for glucose.
C6H12O6
166
How do you carbohydrates receive their name?
They received your name from the fact that each carbon atoms seems to be connected with one molecule of water
167
What size of carbohydrate molecules taste sweet?
Smaller carbohydrate molecules taste sweet also called sugars
168
What is the most basic carbohydrate?
The most basic carbohydrates consist of one unit only which are called monosaccharides./simple sugars.
169
What are the 3 main monosaccharides that are important for your body?
Glucose (blood sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), galactose
170
Ribose and deoxyribose form what?
They form the backbone of RNA(ribose) and DNA (deoxyribose)
171
What are the three most common disacctorides?
Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, or saccharose), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
Sucrose consist of one molecule each of glucose and fructose; Lactose of one molecule each of glucose and galactose; Maltose of two molecules of glucose
172
How are oligosaccharides formed?
They are usually formed from 3 to 10 monosaccharides and polysaccharides from many sugar units.
173
What do polysaccharides consist of?
They consist of long, linear chains or can be highly branched.
Can be used as storage forms for carbohydrates in plants (starch) And animals (glycogen) as well as structural components such as cellulose in plants and chitin and fungi and animals
174
Describe lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of substances that do not dissolve in polar liquids such as water but rather in nonpolar liquids, such as acetone.
Lipids are mainly composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen.
175
List the 4 major lipids
Neutral fats/triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and eicosanoids
176
Each triglyceride consist of what?
Each triglyceride consist of one molecule of like glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid
They are mainly used for energy storage and to a lesser extent as structural fat.
177
Describe Glycerol
It is a molecule with three carbon atoms and three hydroxial groups.
Fatty acids are long carbon chains with carboxyl group at one end
178
What percentage do you triglycerides make up of all the lipids in the human body?
They make up approximately 95% of all lipids of the human body
179
Describe how triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats.
Depending on the fatty acids triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats that are found in meat, dairy products, and tropical oils and unsaturated fats from seeds, nuts, olive oil, and most other vegetable oils.

180
What are the two essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by our body and therefore must be ingested with food?
linoleic acid and linolenic acid
181
Where are phospholipids derived from?
* triglycerides, they contain to fatty acids only, the third one is replaced by a phosphate group.
This creates a molecule with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Phospholipids are essential parts of the myelin sheath of nerves and of the lipid bilayer cell membranes
182
Where are eicosanoids derived from?
* from fatty acids.
The group contains prostaglandins which has important functions such as smooth muscle contraction in blood pressure control, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, which help regulate our immune system
183
Where is cholesterol belong to?
to the steroids which are four ring to molecules.
It is a substantial part of animal cell membranes and a precursor of steroid hormones for example sex hormones and of bile salts. Cholesterol is found in egg yolk, meat, shellfish and milk products
184
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino acids
185
Each amino acid contains what?
Each amino acid contains one amino group, one carboxyl group, one hydrogen atom, and one side chain attached to the same carbon atom. There are 20 basic types of amino acids with different side chains.
186
Describe a dipeptide
Two amino acids bound together by a peptide bond
Tripeptide: 3
Tetrapeptide: 4
187
you’re doing great
Sweetie
188
Poly pet tides consist of long chains of what?
They consist of long chains of amino acids bounds together by peptide bonds. When the chain contains more than 50 amino acid substances called protein.
189
When a polypeptide chain contains more than 50 amino acids the substance is called what?
Protein
190
Describe primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids linked together to form a protein
191
Describe the secondary structure of a protein
results from folding of the protein chain which is caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids of the chain.
if these hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of the protein changes and it becomes nonfunctional called denaturation
192
Describe denaturation
When hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of a protein changes and becomes nonfunctional
Example: What happens when eggs get fried or boiled
193
Describe the tertiary structure
Three-dimensional structure of proteins caused by the folding of the chain
*important for the physical properties of the protein
194
Describe quaternary structure
Complex proteins consist of two or more individual protein chains or subunits giving them a quartz Neri structure that is based on the spatial arrangement of the subunits
195
Hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying proteins of the red blood cells, consist of how many protein chains, how many alpha chains, how many beta chains?
Consist of four protein chains, two Alpha chains, and two beta chains
196
Describe how proteins are important for functional proteins
Proteins are used a structural materials for our body
Ex: as keratin in skin and hair, but play important roles as functional proteins such as enzymes
197
 Which type of lipid is used to create hormones?
 Cholesterol
198
The major storage polysaccharide in humans is?
Glycogen
199
A carbohydrate that taste sweet is called?
Sugar
200
Amino acids are the building blocks of?
Protein
201
Describe the cells function
They form tissues and organs, capable of undergoing changes to carry out specific functions.
202
List the cell theory’s four concepts.
1. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life
2. Tissue, Oregon, and organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell functions
3. The bio chemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific subcellular structures (organelles)
4. The continuity of life has a cellular basis for example without living cells, there are no living tissues, organs, or organisms
203
Plasma membranes consist of which three components?
Proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol
204
Which cell junctions are rivets the anchor cells together?
Desmosomes
205
Whip like, Motile cellular extensions that move substances across cell services are called what
Cilia
206
In the cell DNA is found in the?
Nucleus
207
In which transport process is the energy from hydrolysis of ATP used to drive substances across the membrane against their own concentration gradients?
Primary active transport
208
If the solute concentration is a greater in the solution on the inside of the cell compared to the solute concentration of the solution that is outside the cell, then what direction will the water move?
Into the cell
209
Which is a transport process by which cells take up extra cellular substances within vessels?
Endocytosis
210
In which transport process is the energy stored in an Na+ concentration gradient used to drive other substances across the membrane against her own concentration gradients?
Secondary active transport
211
Is leakage always open or closed?
Leakage channels are always open
212
Are gated channels always open or closed?
Gated channels can be opened and closed
213
Lists the types of channels
Chemically gated channels: Channels open with the binding of a specific neural transmitter
voltage gated channels: Open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential
mechanically gated channels: Open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors
214
When gated channels are open, ions diffuse quickly across the membrane along their electrochemical gradients:
- Down a chemical concentration gradient from higher to lower concentration
- How long electrical gradient toward an opposite electrical charge
- The ion flow creates an electrical current and voltage changes across the membrane
215
Some K+ continually diffuses down concentration gradient and will move where?
It moves out of the cell through K+ leakage channels, making the interior negative compared to the outside
216
Some Na+ diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell through what?
Into the cell through an Na+ leakage channels, offsetting some of the negativity.
217
Describe how the RMP is established
It is established at the point where the electrical gradient balances the K+ and Na+ concentration gradients and there is no net flow of ions into or out of the cell. The negative interior Of the cell is due to much greater diffusion of K+ out of the cell than Na+ diffusion into the cell
218
How do you sodium potassium pump stabilize the resting membrane potential?
They stabilize the resting membrane potential by maintaining the concentration gradients for Na+ and K+
219
Changes in the membrane potential are used to receive, integrate, and send information. The membrane potential changes when:
1. concentrations of ions across the membrane change
2. Permeability of the membrane to ions change for example by opening or closing of gated channels
220
Describe depolarization
It is defined as a reduction in membrane potential towards zero. The inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential, which increases the probability of producing a nerve impulse
221
Describe hyperpolarization
It is defined as an increase in membrane potential away from zero. The inside of a membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential, which reduces the probability of producing a nerve impulse
222
Describe a graded potential
It is short-lived, localized change in membrane potential that is used as a short distance signal.
Occurrence: When a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open, leading to depolarization or hyper polarization. Graded potentials decreasing magnitude with distance as ions flow in diffuse through leak channels
223
Describe action potential
It is a brief reversal of the membrane potential with a total amplitude of 100mV . It occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons. Action potentials do not decrease in magnitude over distance. Therefore they are the principal means of long distance neural communication.
224
Describe how action potentials are the principal means of long-distance neurocommunication.

1. In the resting state, only leakage channels for an Na+ and K+ are open. All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed.
2. Depolarizing phase: Depolarizing local currents open voltage gated Na+ channels and the increase in a plus influx causing more depolarization. At the threshold, a positive feedback leads to opening of all Na+ channels, leading to a massive influx of Na+ and a reversal of the membrane polarity to +30mV
3. Repolarizing phase: Na+ channels close and the membrane permeability for Na+ declines to resting levels. Slow, voltage sensitive K+ gates open, K+ exits the cell, and internal negativity is restored
4. Hyperpolarization: Some K+ channels remain open, allowing excessive K+ outflow. This causes afterhypolarization of the membrane(undershoot)
225
Anatomy
The study of body structure and their reaction
226
Physiology
The study of the the body function and it’s parts
227
Principle of complementarity
Function always reflects structure
228
How many layers of structural organization is there?
6
229
What is the order of the order of complexity?
Chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
230
How many organ systems are there?
11
231
Describe homeostasis
Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
232
Organ structures are made of ____ or more____
Organ structures are made of 2 or more tissues
233
Describe the integumentary system
- forms the external body covering (primary barrier prevents anything from getting in)
- protects deeper tissues from injury
- synthesizes (produces) vitamin D (important for cell production) and house receptors
234
Why is vitamin D important?
Cell production
235
Describe the skeletal system
- protects and supports body organs
- provides framework for muscles to attach to
- all formed blood elements (cells) are formed within bones
- bones store minerals (calcium)
236
Describe muscular system
- allows for manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression
- maintains posture
- produces heat
237
Describe nervous system
- as the fast acting control system of the body
- it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
238
Describe endocrine system
- glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
239
Describe cardiovascular
- heart pumps blood into blood vessels that transport the blood to the organs and tissue and back to the heart
- blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
240
Describe lymphatic & immune system
- lymphatic system picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood.
- disposed of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity
- immune system protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body
241
Describe respiratory system
- keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2
- the gas exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
242
Describe the digestive system
- takes in food and moves it through the GI tract
- breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
- indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
243
Describe the urinary system
- eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
- regulates the water, electroolyte, and acid base balance of the body
244
Describe the reproductive system
function: production of offspring
- testes produce sperm and make sex hormone, the ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
- mammary(breast) glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
245
Describe homeostatic control mechanisms
Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
246
Describe the receptor (components of a control mechanism)
Receptor (sensor)
- monitors the environment
- responds to stimuli (changed in controlled variables)
247
Describe the control center (components of a control mechanism)
- determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
- receives input from receptor
- determines appropriate response
248
Describe the effector (components of a control mechanism)
- receives output from control center
- provides the means to respond
- response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
249
Define negative feedback
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
- the stimulus (too high or too too low body temp) would cause damage to the system if not reduced or removed
Ex: blood sugar is elevated, it secretes a hormone (insulin), you eat a donut which rockets your blood sugar level, insulin will lower it back to 180 (normal)
250
Define positive feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
- usually controls infrequent events that may be life threatening or life saving
Ex: enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Ex: platelet plug formation and blood clotting
251
List the homeostasis imbalance
- increases risk of disease
- contributes to changes associated with aging
- may allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over
Ex: heart failure
252
List the eight necessary life functions
Maintaining boundaries, movement (contractility), responsiveness,digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth
253
Define the eight necessary life functions
Essential for keeping our body and mind healthy
- if one or more of them can’t be maintained properly, signs and symptoms of disease will develop
254
Define maintaining boundaries
Btw internal and external environments
- Achieved by plasma membranes and the skin
255
Define movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle) or substances
Ex: blood or food (cardiac and smooth muscle)
256
Define responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Ex: withdrawal reflex
Ex: control of our breathing rate
257
Describe digestion
Involves the breakdown of ingested foodstuffs and the absorption of simple molecules into blood
258
Describe metabolism
Or the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
259
Describe excretion
Or the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Ex: urea, CO2, feces
260
Define reproduction
As cellular division for growth or repair and the production of offspring
261
Define growth
As increase in size of a body part or of an organism
262
List the 5 survival needs
Nutrients, water, oxygen, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure
263
Why must the 5 survival needs be met?
Or else the body will suffer and may die
264
Describe nutrients
Substances in food that promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair
- major nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
- minor nutrients: vitamins and minerals (ex: water)
265
What are two types on solubility?
- water soluble vitamins
—> B complex and C are absorbed with water
—> not stored in body
- fat soluble vitamins
—> A, D, E, and K are absorbed with lipid digestion products
—> stored in body, except for K
266
List the 7 minerals
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium
267
Minerals uptake & excretion must be balanced to prevent what?
to prevent toxic overload
268
List the carbohydrate dietary sources
- starch in grains and vegetables (ex: complex carbohydrates)
- sugars in fruits (ex: sugarcane, honey, milk)
- insoluble fiber: cellulose in veggies; provides roughage
- soluble fiber: pectin in apples & citrus fruits ; may reduce blood cholesterol levels
269
Abdominal pelvic regions are split into how many regions and list them.
- 9 regions
- right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac (inguinal) region, hypogastric region, and left iliac (inguinal)region
270
Plueral cavity contains which organ?
Contains the lungs
271
What is a universal solvent?
Water
272
What is a mechanism that produces a response to reduce or shut off original stimulus?
Negative feedback
273
Define responsiveness
Reaction to a change inside or outside the body (stimuli)
274
Which system does the dorsal cavity protect?
It protects the nervous system
275
What is considered overweight according to a BMI?
25 to 29.9
276
What does the effector receive?
It receives output from the control center
277
What describes chemicals for energy and cell building?
Nutrients
278
What is the body mass index based off of?
Height and weight
279
What is considered underweight according to the BMI?
<18.5 (less than)
280
How many necessary life functions are there?
Eight
281
What describes the process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body?
Excretion
282
What is considered obesity according to the BMI?
>30 (greater than)
283
The thermal receptor receives what?
Temperature
284
Define Contractility
Movement of body parts
285
What are the fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K
286
What is a fast acting control system of the body?
Nervous system
287
The receptor receives what?
Pain 
288
Describe function of digestion
Breaks down food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed and used
289
Describe a normal body temperature
98.6 Fahrenheit affects rate and chemical reactions
290
What does the control center determined?
Set point at which a variable is maintained
291
Define anatomy
The Study of body structure and their relation to one another
292
What are the life 8 functions?
Maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth
293
Describe metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
294
What are water soluble vitamins?
B and C
295
Describe growth
Increase in size
296
mediastinum
Contains the pericardial cavity and surrounds the remaining thorac organs
297
What are the seven required minerals?
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium
298
True or false the cardiovascular system provides the oxygen and nutrients
False
299
Describe appropriate atmospheric pressure
Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
300
What’s another name for the digestive system?
The G.I. track
301
What organs are located in the pelvic cavity?
Bladder, reproductive organs, rectum
302
How many organ systems are there?
11
303
Describe maintaining boundaries
Separation between internal and external environments must exist
304
What is the slow acting control system of the body
The endocrine system
305
Describe the ventral cavity
Houses the internal organs and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic
306
Define physiology
The study of the body function and its parts
307
What is essential for energy release (ATP production)?
Oxygen
308
Define reproduction
The ability to generate viable offspring
309
Define positive feedback
Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output
310
What is considered normal weight according to BMI?
18.5 to 24.9
311
What is BMI?
Body mass index
312
List the abdominopelvic regions
Right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, and left lower quadrant
313
How many layers of structural organization is there?
6
314
What is a receptor?
Something that receives a stimulus
315
What are the two types of vitamins?
Water soluble and fat soluble
316
What organs are located in the abdominal cavity?
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
317
How many survival needs are there?
5
318
What splits the ventral cavities( thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity)?
Diaphragm
319
Describe the principle of complementarity.
Function always reflect structure
320
Define the combining form: abdomin(o)- 
Abdomen—> example abdominopelvic= Relating to the abdomen and pelvis
321
Define the combining form: crani (o)-
Skull (cranium)—> example craniospinal = relating to the cranium and spinal column
322
Define the combining form: dorsi-, dorso-
Back (dorsum) —> example dorsal = relating to the back; towards the back
323
Define the combining form: epi-
Upon, above, or beside —> example epigastric = located above the stomach
324
Define the combining form: endo(o)-
Inside —> example endogenous = growing or originating from inside the body
325
Define the combining form: ex(o)-
Outside —> example exogenous = originating from outside the body
326
Define the combining form: extra-
Outside of, beyond of, or in addition to —> example extracellular = located outside a cell
327
Define the combining form: gastr(o)-
Stomach—> example gastrophrenic = relating to the stomach and diaphragm
328
Define the combining form: hypo-
Below, less than normal, or insufficient —> example hypogastric = located below the stomach
329
Define the combining form: intra
Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside the cell
330
Define the combining form: spin(o)-
Spine, backbone (spinal column)—> example spinal= relating to the spine or the spinal cord
331
Define the combining form: thorac(o)-
Thorax, chest —> example thoracic = relating to the chest/thorax or chest region
332
Define the combining form: ventr(o)-
Belly —> example ventral = toward or at the front of the body; in front of
333
What are the four subdivisions of anatomy?
Surface anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional or topographical anatomy, and developmental anatomy
334
Define cytology
The study of cells
335
Define histology
Study of tissues
336
Describe the integumentary system
- Forms the external body covering
- protects deeper tissues from injury
- synthesizes vitamin D and house receptors as well as sweat and oil glands
337
Describe the skeletal system
- Provides and support body organs
- provides a framework for muscles to attach to
- all formed blood elements are formed within bones
—> bones store mineral such as Ca
338
Define the muscular system
Allows for a manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, and produces heat
339
Describe the nervous system
- fast acting control system of the body,
- responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
340
Describe the endocrine system
- Consist of hormones secreting glands that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
341
Describe the cardiovascular system
- Consist of a pump and blood vessels,
- the heart pumps blood into the decsels that transport it to organs and tissues and back to the heart
-the blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
342
Describe the lymphatic and immune system
Lymphatic
- picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood
- disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity
Immune
- protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body
343
Describe the respiratory system
- Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
- removes carbon dioxide from the body
- the gas exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
344
Describe the digestive system
- takes in food and moves it through the G.I. track,
- breaks it down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
- indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
345
Describe the urinary system
- eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body and helps regulating the water, electrolyte, and acid base balance of the body
346
What organic compound can’t be synthesized by our body?
Vitamins
347
What does BMI not account for?
The composition of the body
348
Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via 4 mechanisms, list them.
- Radiation: Loss of heat in the form of infrared rays
- conduction: Transfer of heat by direct contact
- convection: Transfer of heat to the surrounding air
- evaporation: heat loss due to the evaporation of water from body surfaces
349
The hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centers list them.
One heat loss Center and one heat promoting center
350
Define hyperthermia
Increased body temperature
351
Define hypothermia
Body temperature below normal with decreasing vital signs
352
Define acclimatization
Long-term adjustments made to cope with less atmospheric pressure
353
Why do athletes like to train in high altitudes before competitions?
To gain an increased red cell count that allows them to transport more oxygen than their competitors blood
354
Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via_______.
Evaporation
355
Which BMI range indicates severe obesity according the WHO?
35.0 to 39.9
356
Which is a dietary source for cholesterol?
Meat
357
The process of cell death caused by poor blood flow is called ________.
Infarction
358
What are the two major body cavities?
Dorsal cavity and ventral cavity
359
Describe the dorsal cavity
At the back of the body
360
What does a dorsal cavity protect?
Main parts of the nervous system
361
Describe the ventral cavity
At the front of the body
362
What does the cranial cavity protect?
The brain lies protected by bones within the cranial cavity
363
What does the spinal cavity protect?
The spinal cord is protected by bones and ligaments of the spine that form the spinal cavity
364
What are the main organs in the thoracic cavity?
Heart and lungs
365
Define mediastinum
The space between pleural cavities
366
The Thoracic cavity subdivided into two pleural cavities house what
Lungs
367
What are the three middle regions from top to bottom?
Epigastric, umbilical, and hypogastric
368
What is the system that plays the major role in regulating the volume and chemical position of blood, eliminating waste, and regulating fluid and electrolyte balance is?
The urinary system
Ex: the tight junction functions so urine doesn’t leak in our body
369
Homeostasis is a condition in which the body maintains what?
A relatively stable internal environment within limits
370
If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is classified as a____ feedback system.
Positive feedback system
371
What is called the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body?
Metabolism
