Exam 1 (Ch.1,3,4) Flashcards
(164 cards)
1
Q
Behavioral Perspective
A
an approach that focuses on external, environmental influences on behavior
2
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Behaviorism
A
a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of observable stimuli, responses, and consequences
3
Q
Biological Perspective
A
an approach that focuses on physical causes of behavior
4
Q
Case study
A
an in-depth observation of one or a few participants or settings
5
Q
Casual hypothesis
A
an educated guess about how one variable will influence another variable
6
Q
Cognition
A
mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving
7
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Cognitive Perspective
A
an approach that focuses on how mental processes influence behavior
8
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Confidentiality
A
the ethical principle that researchers do not reveal which data were collected from which participant
9
Q
Confirmation Bias
A
a tendency to interpret people’s behavior in a way that supports our expectations
10
Q
Cofounding Variables
A
factors other than the independent variable that affect the dependent measure
11
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Control Group
A
the group of participants who do not receive the manipulation that is being tested
12
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Correlation
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the relationship between two or more variables
13
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Critical Thinking
A
thought processes used to evaluate and analyze information and apply it to other situations
14
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Debriefing
A
the ethical principle that participants be fully informed of the nature of the study after participating in research involving deception
15
Q
Dependent Variable
A
the variable in an experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation
16
Q
Double-Blind Studies
A
experiments in which neither the experimenters nor the participants know to which group (experimental or control) participants have been assigned
17
Q
Eclectic approach
A
an approach that integrates and combines several perspectives when explaining behavior
18
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Evolutionary perspective
A
an approach that focuses on how evolution and natural selection influence behavior
19
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Experiment
A
a research method that is used to test causal hypotheses
20
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Experimental Group
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the group of participants who receive the manipulation that is being tested
21
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Functionalism
A
an early psychological perspective concerned with how behavior helps people adapt to their environment
22
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Generalizability
A
how well a researcher’s findings apply to other individuals and situations
23
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Humanism
A
a psychological perspective that emphasizes the personal growth and potential of humans
24
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Humanistic Perspective
A
an approach that focuses on how peoples’ view of themselves and the world influence behavior
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Hypothesis
Educated guess
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Independent variable
the variable in an experiment that is manipulated
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Informed Consent
the ethical principle that research participants be told about various aspects of the study, including any risks, before agreeing to participate
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Institutional Review Board (IRB)
a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards have been met
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Introspection
observing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or sensations
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Meta-analyses
research procedures that combine the findings from a number of scientific studies on the same question or topic to establish the reliability of the findings, observe any overall trends, and to resolve any discrepancies among the research studies
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Naturalistic Observations
research studies conducted in an environment in which the behavior typically occurs
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Negative Correlation
a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to decreases in the other variable
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Neuroscience
a field of science that investigates the relationships between the nervous system and behavior/mental processes
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Placebo Effect
a measurable change in participants’ behavior due to the expectation or belief that a treatment will have certain effects
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Population of Interest
the entire universe of animals or people that could be studied
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Positive Correlation
a relationship in which increases in one variable correspond to increases in the other variable
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Positive Psychology
the study of factors that contribute to happiness, positive emotions, and well-being
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Prediction
an expected outcome of how variables will relate
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Predictive Hypothesis
an educated guess about the relationships among variables
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Pseudo-psychology
psychological information or conclusions that sound scientific but have not been systematically tested using the scientific method
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud’s view that emphasizes the influence of unconscious desires and conflicts on behavior
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Psychodynamic Perspective
an approach that focuses on internal unconscious mental processes, motives, and desires that may explain behavior
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Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Quasi-experiment
a research study that is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the different conditions
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Random Assignment
a method of assigning participants in which they have an equal chance of being placed in any group or condition of the study
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Response
an organism’s reaction to a stimulus
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Sample
the portion of the population of interest that is selected for a study
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Scientific Method
a systematic process used by psychologists for testing hypotheses about behavior
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Sociocultural Perspective
an approach that focuses on societal and cultural factors that may influence behavior
50
Stimulus
any object or event that is perceived by our senses
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Structuralism
an early psychological perspective concerned with identifying the basic elements of experience
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Surveys
research methods that ask a large group of people about their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors
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Theory
an explanation of why and how a behavior occurs
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Absolute Threshold
the minimum intensity of a stimulus at which participants can identify its presence 50% of the time
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Accommodation
the process through which the lens is stretched or squeezed to focus light on the retina
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Amplitude
a physical property of some energies that corresponds to the height of wave peaks
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Attention
conscious awareness; can be focused on events that are taking place in the environment or inside our minds
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Auditory Nerve
the nerve that carries information from the inner ear to the brain
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Basilar Membrane
the structure in the cochlear duct that contains the hair cells, which convert sound waves into neural impulses
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Binocular Depth Cues
depth cues that utilize information from both eyes
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Blindspot
the point where the optic nerve leaves the retina (the optic disk), where there are no rods or cones
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Bottom-up processing
perception that is not guided by prior knowledge or expectations
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Brightness
the intensity of light; it corresponds to the amplitude of the light waves
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Closure
a Gestalt principle of perception that states that when we look at a stimulus, we tend to see it as a closed shape rather than lines
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Cochlea
the curled, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that contains the basilar membrane
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Color Blindness
a condition in which a person cannot perceive one or more colors because of altered cone activity in the retina
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Cones
the cells of the retina that are sensitive to specific colors of light and send information to the brain concerning the colors we are seeing
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Cornea
the clear, slightly bulging outer surface of the eye that both protects the eye and begins the focusing process
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Cycle
a physical characteristic of energy defined as a wave peak and the valley that immediately follows it
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Dark Adaptation
the process through which our eyes adjust to dark conditions after having been exposed to bright light
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Decibels (dB)
the unit of measurement used to describe the loudness of a sound
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Dermis
the inner layer of the skin
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Epidermis
the inner layer of the skin
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Extrasensory Perception
also known as psi, the ability to acquire information about the world without using the known senses
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Feature Detection Theory
a theory of perception that proposes that we have specialized cells in the visual cortex, feature detectors, that fire only when they receive input that indicates we are looking at a particular shape, color, angle, or other visual feature
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Figure-ground
a Gestalt principle of perception that states that when we perceive a stimulus, we visually pull the figure part of the stimulus forward while visually pushing backward the background, or ground, part of the stimulus
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Frequency
a physical characteristic of energy defined as the number of cycles that occur in a given unit of time
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Frequency Theory
a theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch directly from the frequency at which the hair cells of the basilar membrane are firing
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Gate control theory of pain
a theory of pain that proposes that tiny neural networks in the spinal cord block pain signals from a particular part of the body when they receive additional neural signals from intense tactile stimulation being applied to the same part of the body
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Gestalt Approach
a psychological school of thought originating in Germany that proposed that the whole of a perception must be understood rather than trying to deconstruct perception into its parts
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Good Continuation
a Gestalt principle of perception that states that we have a preference for perceiving stimuli that seem to follow one another as part of a continuing pattern
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Gustation
sense of taste
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Hair cells
neurons that grow out of the basilar membrane and convert sound waves into neural impulses
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Hue
the color of light; it corresponds to the light’s wavelength
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Inner Ear
the innermost portion of the ear that includes the cochlea
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Just noticeable difference
the minimum change in intensity of a stimulus that participants can detect 50% of the time
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Kinesthetics
the ability to sense the position of our body parts in relation to one another and in relation to space
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Lens
the part of the eye that lies behind the pupil and focuses light rays on the retina
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Light Adaptation
the process through which our eyes adjust to bright light after having been exposed to darkness
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Lock-and-Key theory
a theory that proposes that olfactory receptors are excited by odor molecules in a way that is similar to the way in which neurotransmitters excite receptor sites
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Loudness
the psychophysical property of sound that corresponds to the amplitude of a sound wave
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Middle Ear
the part of the ear behind the ear drum and in front of the oval window, including the hammer, anvil, and stirrup
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Monocular Depth Cues
depth cues that require information from only one eye
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Olfaction
the sense of smell
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Olfactory Epithelium
a special piece of skin at the top of the nasal cavity that contains the olfactory receptors
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Opponent-process theory
the idea that we have dual-action cells beyond the level of the retina that signal the brain when we see one of a pair of colors
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Optic Chiasm
the point in the brain where the optic nerve from the left eye meets the optic nerve from the right eye
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Optic Nerve
the structure that conveys visual information away from the retina to the brain
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Outer Ear
the outermost parts of the ear, including the pinna, auditory canal, and surface of the ear drum
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Papillae
bumps on the tongue that many people mistake for taste buds
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Perception
the process through which we interpret sensory information
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Perceptual set
a general readiness to perceive something in a particular manner
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Pheromones
airborne chemicals that are released from glands and detected by the vomeronasal organs in some animals and perhaps humans
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Photopigments
light-sensitive chemicals that create electrical charges when they come into contact with light
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Pitch
the psychophysical property of sound that corresponds to the frequency of a sound wave
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Place Theory
a theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch by noticing which region of the basilar membrane is most active
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Proximity
a Gestalt principle of perception that states that we tend to group close objects together during perception
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Psychophysics
the study of how the mind interprets the physical properties of stimuli
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Retinal Disparity
a binocular depth cue that uses the difference in the images projected on the right and left retinas to inform the brain about the distance of a stimulus
111
Retina
the structure at the back of the eye that contains cells that convert light into neural signals
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Rods
the light-sensitive cells of the retina that pick up any type of light energy and convert it to neural signals
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Saturation
the purity of light; light that consists of a single wavelength produces the richest or most saturated color
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Sensation
the process through which our sense organs convert environmental energy such as light and sound into neural signals
115
Signal detection theory
states that our ability to detect the presence of a stimulus is affected by more than just the intensity of that stimulus. Factors such as fatigue, motivation, and attention may also affect these judgments
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Similarity
a Gestalt principle of perception that states that we tend to group like objects together during perception
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Subliminal Perception
when the intensity of a stimulus is below the participant’s absolute threshold and the participant is not consciously aware of the stimulus
118
Taste Buds
the sense organs for taste that are found between the papillae on the tongue
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Top-down processing
perception that is guided by prior knowledge or expectations
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Trichromatic theory of color vision
the idea that color vision is made possible by the presence of three different types of cones in the retina that react, respectively, to red, green, or blue light
121
Vestibular sense
the sense of balance
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Visible spectrum
the spectrum of light that humans can see
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Volley Theory
a theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch by noticing the frequency at which groups of hair cells on the basilar membrane are firing
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Wavelength
a physical property of some energies that corresponds to the distance between wave peaks
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Weber's Law
psychological principle that states that for each of our five senses, the amount of change in the stimulus that is necessary to produce a jnd depends on the intensity at which the stimulus is first presented
126
Activation-Synthesis Theory
suggests that dreams do not have symbolic meaning, but are the by-product of the brain’s random firing of neural impulses during REM sleep
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Circadian Rhythm
changes in bodily processes that occur repeatedly on approximately a 24- to 25-hour cycle
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Consciousness
feelings, thoughts, and aroused states of which we are aware
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Continuity Hypothesis
suggests that dreaming is a way of coping with daily problems and issues
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Depressants
drugs that inhibit or slow down normal neural functioning
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Enuresis
a condition in which a person over the age of 5 shows an inability to control urination during sleep
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
a birth condition resulting from the mother’s chronic use of alcohol during pregnancy, characterized by facial and limb deformities and intellectual disability
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Hallucinogens
drugs that simultaneously excite and inhibit normal neural activity, thereby causing distortions in perception
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Hypnosis
a state of relaxation and heightened suggestibility
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Insomnia
a sleep disorder in which a person cannot get to sleep and/or stay asleep
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Latent Content
according to Freud, the symbolic meaning of a dream
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Manifest Content
according to Freud, what the dreamer recalls on awakening
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Meditation
a practice whereby a person focuses their attention on a singular source such as a word, bodily sensation, or object for a period of time
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Melatonin
a hormone in the body that facilitates sleep
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Memory Theory
suggests that dreams are a way to consolidate information and get rid of trivial details in our memories
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Microsleep
a brief episode of sleep that occurs in the midst of a wakeful activity
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Mindfulness Meditation
a practice where a person intentionally focuses and pays attention to and experiences what is going on in the moment–their emotions, thoughts, and/or sensations–without judgment
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Narcolepsy
a rare sleep disorder in which a person falls asleep during alert times of the day
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Neodissociation Theory
Hilgard’s proposal that hypnosis involves two simultaneous states: a hypnotic state and a hidden observer
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Nightmares
brief scary REM dreams that are often remembered
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Night Terrors
very frightening non-REM sleep episodes
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Non-REM sleep
the relaxing state of sleep in which the person’s eyes do not move
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Opiates
painkilling drugs that depress some brain areas and excite others
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Psychoactive drugs
substances that influence the brain and thereby the individual’s behavior
150
REM behavior disorder
a condition in which normal muscle paralysis does not occur, leading to violent movements during REM sleep
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REM Rebound
the loss of REM sleep is recouped by spending more time in REM on subsequent nights
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REM Sleep
an active state of sleep in which the person’s eyes move
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Restless Legs Syndrome
a neurological movement disorder occurring primarily at night in which a person has unpleasant sensations in the legs and an irresistible urge to move them to relieve the discomfort
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Response Set Theory of Hypnosis
asserts that hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness, but a cognitive set to respond appropriately to suggestions
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Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder in which a person stops breathing during sleep
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Sleep Disorder
a disturbance in the normal pattern of sleeping
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Sleepwalking
a sleep disorder in which a person is mobile and may perform actions during non-REM slow-wave sleep
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Stimulants
drugs that speed up normal brain functioning
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Substance Use Disorder
a condition in which a person cannot control their drug use and continues to use a drug despite negative social, occupational, and health consequences, risky use, as well as evidence of tolerance or withdrawal
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a group of brain cells located in the hypothalamus that signal other brain areas when to be aroused and when to shut down
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THC
the active ingredient in marijuana that affects learning, short-term memory, coordination, emotion, and appetite
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Threat Simulation Theory
suggests that dreaming is an ancient biological defense mechanism that allows us to repeatedly simulate potentially threatening situations so that we can rehearse our responses to these events
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Tolerance
a condition in which after repeated use, more of a drug is needed to achieve the same effect
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Withdrawal Symptoms
physical or behavioral effects that occur after a person stops using a drug
