EXAM 1: Chapter 2 - Biological Development

Question 1

What is sex

Answer 1

The distinction between genetic females (XX), genetic males (XY) and intersex individuals
- Also includes variations in associated hormonal concentrations and activity

Question 2

What is gender

Answer 2

Social assignment or self-categorization as a man/boy, woman/girl, non-binary

Question 3

What are gametes (germ cells)

Answer 3

Reproductive cells - egg and sperm - that contain only half the genetic material of all other cells in the body
- sex chromosomes are passed on through gametes

Question 4

What is the role of sex chromosomes

Answer 4

Organizing and activating processes across development

Question 5

Overt signs of variations beyond XX and XY dichotomy often emerge in __________

Answer 5

Puberty

Question 6

What occurs during the prenatal development phase

Answer 6

Organizing occurs
Sex is determined by the presence or absence of androgens, allowing for the formation, if present, of male external organs
- androgen insensitivity
- congenital adrenal hyperplasia (hypersensitivity)

Question 7

What occurs during the adolescence period

Answer 7

Activating
Puberty

Question 8

What is puberty

Answer 8

The time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development

Question 9

How long does puberty generally last

Answer 9

About 4 years
But variations (1-7 years)
Many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity

Question 10

What is the endocrine system

Answer 10

Collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate bodily functions

Question 11

What does the gland the ovaries produce (hormone), what is the target organ and what is the function

Answer 11

Estrogen / progesterone
Uterus
Menstrual cycle

Question 12

What does the gland the testes produce (hormone), target organ and function

Answer 12

Testosterone
Many organs
Male characteristics

Question 13

What is the hormone DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone)

Answer 13

Precursor to androgens and estrogens that increase during puberty, peak around 25 years and then declines steadily across aging

Question 14

What is the hormone GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

Answer 14

Released by hypothalamus and triggers other hormones in the pituitary gland

Question 15

What is the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Answer 15

Stimulates gonads to produce gametes

Question 16

What is the luteinizing hormone (LH)

Answer 16

Triggers ovulation, modulates ovaries hormone production and menstrual cycle
Causes testes to produce testosterone and modulates testes growth

Question 17

What is estrogens

Answer 17

Hormone responsible for female sex characteristics
(Males also have this just lower levels)

Question 18

What is testosterone

Answer 18

A type of androgen responsible for male sex characteristics
(Females also have this but in much lower levels)

Question 19

What is the HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis

Answer 19

Controls gonads and stress hormones through feedback loops

Question 20

What are gonads

Answer 20

The paired sex glands (ovaries in females, testicles in males)
Produce sex hormones and gametes
Use of feedback loops

Question 21

What is gonadarche

Answer 21

The onset of gonad maturation

Question 22

What is andrenarche

Answer 22

Hormonal changes prior to puberty (6-8 years old)
Activation of adrenal glands to stimulate body growth
- begins sensitive period of HPA axis responses (stress sensitivity!)

Question 23

Adolescent growth spurt

Answer 23

Rapid gain in height and weight (~10 yrs for females, ~12 for males)
Gain fat and muscle, bone density lung/heart size
Lasts ~2 years

Question 24

What is menarche

Answer 24

A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation
- pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche

Question 25

What is spermarche

Answer 25

A boys first ejaculation of sperm - erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production - often occurs as nocturnal emissions (“wet dreams”)

Question 26

What are Primary sex characteristics

Answer 26

The parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis

Question 27

What are secondary sex characteristics

Answer 27

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as voice changes, facial/body hair, acne, breast development

Question 28

What are ways to measure pubertal onset

Answer 28

Salivary hormone levels Self- and parent-report of secondary sex characteristics

Question 29

What occurs to sleep patterns during puberty

Answer 29

Delayed phase preference Puberty drives increases in melatonin (and sleep) about 2 hours later than pre-pubertal children

Question 30

What is melatonin

Answer 30

The hormone that influences sleep onset and maintenance

Question 31

What is natural adolescent sleep schedule

Answer 31

1 am to 10 am

Question 32

How many hours of sleep per night do adolescents need

Answer 32

9 hours per night Poor sleep can lead to irritability, cognitive interference and risky behavior

Question 33

At what age is early-onset puberty

Answer 33

< age 8 in girls and < age 9 in boys

Question 34

What can occur during early-onset puberty

Answer 34

Adolescents who look older are treated differently by peers and adults Mismatch with cognitive and emotional maturity -> stress! Greater rates of risky behavior (ex. Smoking) Greater popularity, also athleticism and confidence (more so in boys)

Question 35

There are greater psychosocial downsides for boys or girls during early onset puberty

Answer 35

Girls Lower self-esteem, more depression, anxiety and poorer body image than later-maturing female peers Greater risk of dating violence, sexual harassment, relational aggression

Question 36

What is late-onset puberty

Answer 36

>age 13 in girls and >age 14 in boys Protective affect for girls - less depression, less appearance related anxiety, less relational aggression experiences Greater psychosocial downsides for boys - poor body image/dissatisfaction, more depression, anxiety, effects may wane following maturation - mixed research

Question 37

What is some peer context to late onset puberty

Answer 37

Later-maturing boys may only experience increased anxiety/depression if they have poor peer relaitionships

Question 38

What is racial ethic identity and school context of late onset puberty

Answer 38

Early-maturing black adolescents have more experiences with racial discrimination Greater depression, depending on context - interaction with degree of perceived positive public regard among black adolescents

Question 39

What factors drive individual differences in HPG axis initiation of puberty ?

Answer 39

Genetics Nutrition and Health Stress

Question 40

How do genetics play a role in pubertal timing

Answer 40

Pubertal timing is polygenic - adolescents experience similar timing as parents - identical twins are more similar in timing than fraternal twins

Question 41

How does nutrition and health impact pubertal timing

Answer 41

Leptin - protein found in fat - signals HPG axis to increase hormone secretion Body Mass Index (BMI) predicts pubertal timing

Question 42

How does stress impact pubertal timing

Answer 42

Can trigger hormone fluctuations at any age Early and severe life stress associated with early-onset puberty Low SES families experience more stress and tend to have earlier timing - couples with ethnicity due to systemic economic inequality in US Family dynamics and even family structure appear to play a role

Question 43

What is a secular trend ?

Answer 43

The change from one generation to the next in an aspect of development (ex. Height, shoe size, pubertal timing)

Question 44

What are some mental health factors of pubertal timing

Answer 44

It has bidirectional effects with mental health Mental health difficulties commonly energy during puberty - anxiety - depression - suicidal thoughts and behaviors - eating disorders

Question 45

Suicidal thoughts and behaviors during puberty

Answer 45

Suicidal thoughts and behaviors - death by suicide is 2nd leading cause of death among 15-24 year olds - ~20% of high school students report suicidal thought - ~9% report suicide attempt Interactions with early adversity and pubertal timing

Question 46

How are eating disorders related to pubertal timing

Answer 46

In order from least to most prevalent Anorexia nervousa - restricted food intake leading to low BMI Bulimia nervosa - binge eating with purging (low BMI not necessary) Binge eating disorder - binge eating without purging Accompanied by disruptions with puberty due to malnutrition, medical complications, hormonal fluctuations due to weight fluctuations

Question 47

Health in adolescence and emerging adulthood

Answer 47

Intervention and prevention efforts focus on supporting - healthy nutrition - physical activity - access to care - health literacy - knowledge skills and attitudes about health and the ability to obtain, process, and understand health information, and healthy decisions