Exam 1- Chapter 8 Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
What is the CNS composed of?
A
- Brain
2. Spinal cord
2
Q
Receives _____ from sensory neurons and _____ activity of motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands
A
- Input
2. Directs
3
Q
What are 2 functions of association/interneurons?
A
- Integrate sensory information
2. Help direct the appropriate response to maintain homeostasis and respond to the environment.
4
Q
***** How many neurons does the adult brain have?
A
100 billion
5
Q
***** How much does the brain weigh?
A
1.5kg (3-3.5lbs)
6
Q
***** How much % of the total body blood flow per minute does the brain receive?
A
15%
7
Q
***** What is neurogenesis? Where have scientist demonstrated it?
A
- The formation of new brain cells from stem cells
2. Hippocampus
8
Q
What is the cerebrum derived from?
A
Telencephalon
9
Q
What is the largest portion of the brain? How much % of the brain is this structure?
A
- Cerebrum
2. 80%
10
Q
What is the cerebrum responsible for?
A
Higher mental functions
11
Q
What are the right and left cerebral hemispheres connected internally by?
A
Corpus Callosum
12
Q
What is the outer region of the cerebrum composed of? What underlies it?
A
- 2-4mm of gray matter
2. White matter
13
Q
Raised fold on cerebrum?
A
Gyri
14
Q
Depressed grooves that separate the cerebrum?
A
Sulci
15
Q
Deep sulci divide the cerebrum into how many lobes?
A
5
16
Q
What are the lobes of the cerebrum?
A
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Temporal
- Occipital
- Insula
17
Q
What are the frontal and parietal lobes separated by?
A
Central sulcus
18
Q
Where is the percentral gyrus located? What is it responsible for?
A
- Frontal lobe
2. Motor control
19
Q
Where is the postcentral gyrus located? What is it responsible for?
A
- Parietal lobe
2. Somatesthetic sensation (coming from receptors in the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints)
20
Q
What is the temporal lobe generally known for?
A
Auditory centers
21
Q
What is the occipital lobe generally known to be responsible for?
A
Vision and coordination of eye movements
22
Q
What is the insula generally known to be responsible for?
A
- Encoding of memory
- Integration of sensory information with visceral responses; receives:
1. olfactory information
2. gustatory information
3. auditory information
4. pain information
23
Q
Where are mirror neuron found?
A
Found in frontal and parietal lobes
24
Q
What is the function of mirror neurons?
A
integrate sensory and motor neural activity
25
Mirror neurons are connected through the ______ to _____ centers in the brain.
1. Insula
| 2. Emotional
26
What has been known to be implicated during autism?
Mirror neurons
27
Mirror neurons may be involved in the ability to learn what?
1. Social Skills
| 2. Language
28
What are 5 methods utilized with brain imagery?
1. X-ray computed tomography (CT)
2. Positron emission tomography (PET)
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
4. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
5. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
29
How does X-ray computed tomography (CT) work?
looks at soft tissue absorption of X-rays
30
How does Positron emission tomography (PET) work?
radioactively labeled deoxyglucose injected into the blood; emits gamma rays in active tissues
31
What is Positron emission tomography (PET) used for?
1. Used to monitor cancer
| 2. Used to study brain metabolism, drug distribution in the brain, and changes in blood flow following activity
32
How does Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) work?
Protons in tissues are aligned by powerful magnets. The chemical composition of different tissues results in differences in proton alignment.
33
How can an MRI be amplified?
Can be amplified using MRI contrast agents injected before imaging
34
What does an MRI show clear definition between?
1. Gray matter
2. White matter
3. CSF
35
How does Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) work?
visualizes increased neuronal activity in different brain regions indirectly by looking at blood flow
36
Release of what neurotransmitter increases vasodilation of blood vessels in the area when preforming an fMRI?
Glutamate
37
How does Electroencephalogram (EEG) work?
Electrodes on the scalp detect synaptic potentials produced by cell bodies and dendrites in the cerebral cortex.
38
What four different patterns/brain waves can be detected when preforming an EEG?
1. Alpha waves
2. Beta waves
3. Theta waves
4. Delta waves
39
What do alpha waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?
1. Active/Relaxed brain
| 2. Frontal/Parietal lobes
40
What do beta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?
1. Visual stimulation/Mental activity
| 2. Frontal lobe
41
What do theta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?
1. During sleep (REM)
| 2. Occipital/Temporal lobes
42
What do delta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?
1. Also seen in sleep (Non-REM stages 3/4)
| 2. All over cerebrum
43
What are the two recognized categories of sleep?
1. REM
| 2. Non-REM
44
In REM sleep, what occurs? What waves are seen here?
1. Dreams
| 2. Theta Waves
45
What is Non-REM also referred to as?
Resting sleep
46
How many stages is Non-REM sleep divided into? What are these waves determined by?
1. 4
| 2. Determined by EEG waves seen
47
In Non-REM sleep, what are stages 3 and 4 referred to? What type of brain waves are they characterized by?
1. Slow-wave sleep
| 2. Characterized by delta waves
48
Describe the sleep cycle.
1. When people first fall asleep: non-REM sleep and progress through the 4 stages
2. Ascends back UP the 4 stages of non-REM sleep to REM sleep
49
How often does the sleep cycle often repeat? How many cycles do most people go through a night?
1. Every 90 minutes
| 2. 5
50
When you are awaken naturally, what type of sleep were you usually in?
REM sleep
51
What are basal nuclei? Where are they located?
1. Masses of gray matter
| 2. Deep in the white matter of the cerebrum
52
What is corpus striatum an example of?
Basal Nuclei
53
What is the corpus striatum composed of?
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Lentiform nucleus
1. Putamen
2. Globus pallidus
54
What is the Lentiform nucleus composed of?
1. Putamem
| 2. Globus pallidus
55
What does contralateral mean?
Opposite side
56
Each side of the precentral gyrus controls movements on the ________ side of the body.
Contralateral (opposite)
57
Somatesthetic sensation from each side of the body projects to __________ of the postcentral gyrus
Contralateral sides
58
Communication between the 2 sides of the cerebrum occurs through the what?
Corpus Callosum
59
Describe the procedure that would occur for a patient with severe epilepsy?
Removal of the corpus callosum
60
The right hemisphere of the cerebrum is better at what?
1. Visuospacial tasks:
1. recognizing faces
2. composing music
3. arranging blocks
4. reading maps
61
The left hemisphere of the cerebrum is better at what?
1. Language
2. speech
3. writing
4. calculations (analytical abilities)
62
Most of the knowledge of how the brain controls language has come from what?
people with speech problems called aphasias
63
Speech problems can be termed as?
aphasias
64
What two areas are identified as important in regards to language control?
1. Broca’s area
| 2. Wernicke’s area
65
Where is the Broca's area located?
Located in left inferior frontal gyrus
66
What does the Broca's area control?
Motor aspects of speech
67
What are the symptoms of Broca's aphasia?
slow, poorly articulated speech
| there is no impairment in understanding
68
Although the Broca's area controls motor aspects of speech, Broca's aphasia DOES NOT affect what?
```
other actions of the:
1. tongue
2. lips
3. larynx
are not affected; only the production of speech is affected
```
69
Where is the Wernicke’s area located?
Located in left superior temporal gyrus
70
What does the Wernicke’s area control?
Controls understanding of words
71
Information about written words is sent to the _______ from the ______.
1. Wernicke’s area
| 2. Occipital lobe
72
What are the symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia?
1. Production of rapid speech with no meaning (called “word salad”)
2. Language (spoken and written) comprehension is destroyed
73
As a whole, what is the limbic system?
Group of brain regions responsible for emotional drives
74
What is every area involved with the limbic system?
```
Cerebrum:
1. Cingulate gyrus
2. Amygdala
3. Hippocampus
4. Septal nuclei
5. Anterior insula
Also from diencephalon:
7. Hypothalamus
8. Thalamus
```
75
What emotions are controlled by the limbic system?
1. Aggression
2. Fear
3. Hunger/Satiety
4. Sex drive
5. Goal-directed behaviors
76
What part of the limbic system controls aggression?
areas in the amygdala and hypothalamus
77
What part of the limbic system controls fear?
amygdala and hypothalamus
78
What part of the limbic system controls hunger/satiety?
hypothalamus
79
What part of the limbic system controls sex drive?
the whole system
80
What part of the limbic system controls goal-directed behaviors?
hypothalamus and other regions
81
What are the 2 MAIN types of memory?
1. Short-term
| 2. Long-term
82
What are the different types of long term memory?
1. Non-declaritive (explicit*)
| 2. Declarative (implicit*)
83
What is included non-declarative long term memory?
includes memories of simple skills and conditioning
84
What is included declarative long term memory?
includes verbal memories
85
Amnesiacs are described by having impaired ________?
Declarative memory
86
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
1. Critical for acquiring new memories
| 2. Consolidating short- into long-term memory
87
What type of memories is the amygdala crucial for?
Crucial for fear memories
88
Where does storage of memory occur?
Cerebral hemispheres
89
Higher order processing and planning occur in the ________.
Prefrontal cortex
90
Short-term memory involves a ______, when referring to synaptic changes.
recurrent circuit
91
When talking about the recurrent circuit of short-term memory, what do the neurons do?
neurons synapse on each other in a circle
92
What will result with the interruption of a recurrent circuit in short term memory? Is there a structural change?
Interruption of the circuit destroys the memory. There was no structural change.
93
Long-term memory requires a relatively ________ in neuron chemical structure and synapses.
permanent change
94
Describe Long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus.
1. Synapses that are stimulated at a high frequency exhibit increased excitability
2. In these synapses, glutamate is secreted by the presynaptic neuron
3. The postsynaptic neuron has both AMPA and NMDA receptors for glutamate
4. A retrograde messenger (likely NO) is released into the synapse, and the presynaptic axon is changed so that more glutamate can be released.
5. Endocannabinoids may lift inhibition from GABA-releasing neurons on the synapse, further strengthening it.
(Post-synaptic neuron also receive input from other presynpatic neurons (release GABA))
95
In Long-term potentiation (LTP), GABA’s inihibiton is lessened by another _________ produced by the post-synaptic neuron. This retrograde messenger is?
1. Retrograde messenger
| 2. Endocannabinoid
96
Stimulation by depolarization (by glutamate) is termed _________. This may also affect LTP.
depolariztion-induced suppression of inhibition
97
Where have neural stem cells been found in?
Hippocampus
98
In mice, what do physical activity and an enriched environment promote?
Neurogenesis
99
What can reduce neurogenesis?
Age and stress
100
What is the diencephalon?
Part of the forebrain that includes:
1. Epithalamus
2. Thalamus
3. Hypothalamus
4. Part of the pituitary gland
101
What are 2 functions of the thalamus?
1. Relay center through which most sensory information is passed to the cerebrum
2. Promotes a state of arousal from sleep and alertness
102
What is contained within the epithalamus? Where exactly is this structure? What does it produce?
1. Choroid Plexus
| 2. Pineal gland
103
Where exactly is the Choroid Plexus? What does it produce?
1. Over the third ventricle
| 2. CSF
104
What hormone does the pineal gland produce? What is that hormone involved in?
1. Melatonin
| 2. Helps regulate circadian rhythms
105
What is the main general description of the function of the hypothalamus?
Very important for maintaining homeostasis and regulating the autonomic system
106
What centers are contained within the hypothalamus?
1. Hunger/satiety and thirst
2. Regulation of body temperature
3. Regulation of sleep and wakefulness
4. Sexual arousal and performance
5. Emotions of fear, anger, pain, and pleasure
6. Control of the endocrine system
107
Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) contain what, and how many? How often do those cells oscillate?
1. 20,000 clock cells
| 2. Every 24 hours
108
Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) are entrained by information about day length via what?
Tracts from cells in the retina
109
What do Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) control?
Controls the secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland
110
What is the midbrain also called?
Mesencephalon
111
What is within the midbrain?
1. Superior colliculi
2. Inferior colliculi
3. Cerebral peduncles
4. Red nucleus
5. Substantia nigra
112
What are the superior colliculi involved in?
visual reflexes
113
What are the inferior colliculi involved in?
auditory reflexes
114
What is the function of the red nucleus?
1. Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum
| 2. Involved in motor coordination
115
What is the function of the substantia nigra? What system is it part of?
1. Important part of the motor circuit
| 2. Part of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal system
116
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) is part of what?
Part of the dopaminergic mesolimbic system that sends neurons to the limbic system and nucleus accumbens in the forebrain
117
The _____ is involved in the behavioral reward system and has been implicated in addiction and psychiatric disturbances.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
118
What is the hindbrain also called?
rhombencephalon
119
What is the hindbrain/rhombencephalon composed of?
1. Metencephalon
| 2. Myelencephalon
120
What is the Metencephalon composed of?
1. Pons
| 2. Cerebellum
121
What is the myelencephalon composed of?
medullla oblongata
122
The pons houses sensory and motor tracts heading ___/___ the _______.
1. To/From
| 2. Spinal cord
123
What 3 cranial nerves arise from the pons?
1. Trigeminal
2. Abducens
3. Facial
4. Vestibulocochlear nerves
124
What two respiratory control centers are found within the pons?
1. Apneustic
| 2. Pneumotaxic
125
Where does the cerebellum receive input from?
proprioceptors in joints, tendons, and muscles
126
What 2 structures does the cerebellum work with? What is their goal?
1. Basal nuclei and motor cortex
| 2. Coordinate movement
127
Describe the tract the fibers of the cerebellum take.
Cerebellum ----> red nucleus-----> thalamus ------> motor cortex
128
The cerebellum influences motor coordination through inhibition of what?
inhibition on the motor cortex
129
What exactly is the cerebellum needed for?
1. Motor learning
| 2. Proper timing and force required to move limbs in a specific task
130
All ascending and descending tracts between the brain and spinal cord pass through the __________.
Medulla Oblongata
131
Tracts within the medulla oblongata cross sides in the ____.
Pyramids
132
What cranial nerves come off the medulla oblongata?
Cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII (8-12)
133
The medulla oblongata contains the nuclei required for what? What are these known as?
1. Regulation of breathing and cardiovascular response
| 2. Vital centers
134
What does the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata control?
controls blood vessel diameter
135
What does the cardiac center of the medulla oblongata control?
heart rate
136
What does the rhythmicity center of the medulla oblongata do?
helps areas in the pons control breathing
137
To fall asleep what must we tune out?
Sensory Stimuli
138
When we awake up, what are we now alert to, that we weren't when we were sleeping?
Sensory Stimuli
139
To fall asleep, we must tune out sensory stimuli. When awake, we are alert to sensory stimuli. What does this depend on?
Activation and inhibition of the reticular activating system (RAS)
140
What is included within the RAS?
1. Pons
| 2. Reticular formation of the midbrain
141
Spinal cord has outer ____ layer, and inner _______.
1. White matter
| 2. Gray matter
142
The gray matter of the spinal cord contains what?
1. Left and right dorsal horn
| 2. Left and right ventral horn.
143
What is the white matter of the spinal cord composed of?
ascending and descending fiber tracts
144
The white matter is arranged into what? How many? What are they called?
1. Columns
2. 6
3. Funiculi
145
Ascending tracts are given the prefix _____ with a suffix that indicates___________________.
1. Spino-
| 2. The brain region it synapses on
146
Descending tracts are given the suffix_______, and the prefix indicates ______________.
1. -spinal,
| 2. The brain region they came from
147
What do ascending tracts do?
Convey sensory information from receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, and organs
148
Where may crossover of information (contralateral) of ascending tracts occur?
may occur in the spinal cord or in the medulla
149
What are the two major groups of the descending tracts?
1. Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts
| 2. Extrapyramidal Tracts
150
How do Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts work?
descend directly without synaptic interruption from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
151
Cell bodies of the neurons involved in Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts are located where?
1. Precentral gyrus
| 2. Superior frontal gyrus
152
Where do most (describe the %) Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts cross sides in? What do they further descend as?
1. (80%) medulla pyramids
| 2. Descend as lateral corticospinal tracts
153
The Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts that do not cross sides at the medulla pyramids cross where? What do they further descend as?
1. Spinal cord
| 2. Anterior corticospinal tracts
154
How do Extrapyramidal Tracts work?
originate in the brain stem and are controlled by the motor circuits of the corpus striatum, substantia nigra, and thalamus
155
Symptoms of parkinson disease reveal the importance of one of the descending tracts for initiating body movements, maintaining posture, and controlling facial expression? Which one?
Extrapyramidal Tracts
156
Are cranial nerves part of the CNS or PNS?
PNS
157
Where do cranial nerves directly arise from?
nuclei in the brain
158
How many paris of cranial nerves are there?
12
159
Most cranial nerves are ______ nerves.
Mixed
160
The cranial nerves associated with vision, olfaction, and hearing are ______ only.
Sensory
161
Cell bodies of the cranial nerves associated with vision, olfaction, and hearing located where?
not in the brain but in ganglia located near the sensory organ
162
Are spinal nerves part of the CNS or PNS?
PNS
163
Where do spinal nerves directly arise from?
Spinal Cord
164
How many paris of spinal nerves are there? Break them down and give the number of each region.
```
1. 31
2.
1. Cervical (8)
2. Thoracic (12)
3. Lumbar (5)
4. Sacral (5)
5. Coccygeal (1)
```
165
All spinal nerves are ____ nerves.
Mixed
166
Where do spinal nerves separate? Into what?
1. Near spinal cord
2.
1. Dorsal root (sensory)
2. Ventral root (motor)
167
The dorsal root of the spinal cord contains what nerve fibers?
Sensory nerve fibers
168
The ventral root of the spinal cord contains what nerve fibers?
Motor nerve fibers
169
Where are sensory neuron bodies housed?
Dorsal root ganglion
