Exam 1 Content Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
What are the 6 kingdoms?
A
monera, protista, plante, fungi, Animalia, and ribosomal rna
2
Q
What is Monera?
A
bacteria, prokaryotes, unicellular
3
Q
What is Protista?
A
group of eukaryotes that are not animals, plants, or fungi
4
Q
What is Plante?
A
eukaryote. they do photosynthesis (able to convert light energy into cell energy) and they have a cellulose cell wall
5
Q
What is Fungi?
A
decomposers (absorb nutrients from living or dead organisms) chitin cell wall
6
Q
What is Animalia?
A
ingests particulate food and have no cell wall allowing them to move quite a bit
7
Q
What is Ribosomal RNA?
A
universal (everyone has one), functionally constant (helps synthesize proteins), conserved sequences, and changes slowly
8
Q
What are the 3 domains created by Carl Woese?
A
more inclusive than kingdoms
Domains - Bacteria/Archaea/Eukarya
9
Q
What are the 6 life requirements?
A
- Metabolism - a chemical reaction in an organism (storage and use of chemical energy)
- Reproduction - continue their form over time from generation to generation
- Genetics - pass information in the form of DNA from generation to generation
- Evolution - the ability to change form from generation to generation
- Growth - population growth
- Adaptation - the ability to respond to the environment to deal with abiotic changes (climate change) or biotic enemies (predators, parasites, or competitors)
10
Q
What is autotrophy?
A
this means self-feeding. Autotrophs can synthesize organic molecules from inorganic sources. Plants for example use CO2 /H2O for energy
11
Q
What are Photoautotrophs?
A
they use light as an energy source and use inorganic sources to make energy
12
Q
What are Chemoautotrophs?
A
use sulfur and CO2 ro obtain energy from the covalent bonds of molecular hydrogen (H2)
13
Q
What is Heterotrophy?
A
or chemoheterotrophs
Get their energy from organic sources
Cannot manufacturer their own energy, therefore having to get it from another source
Ways they do this include predation, parasitism, and derivatives (use waste products like fungi, earthworms, and some bacteria)
14
Q
What is Mixotrophy?
A
get energy from both sources/mix of sources
15
Q
How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ?
A
Prokaryotes:
Reproduction: asexual (binary fission)
Organelles: none or few
Circular chromosome: yes
Eukaryotes:
Sexual reproduction (meiosis and mitosis)
Lots including things like nucleus and mitochondria
No circular chromosome
16
Q
What are polymers?
A
large molecules made up of a bunch of monomers
17
Q
What are monomers?
A
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer
18
Q
What are the functions of carbohydrates?
A
Source of energy (glucose)
Energy storage
Structural components
Cellulose: plant cell wall
Chitin: fungi cell wall
19
Q
What are the 3 types of carbohydrates?
A
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
20
Q
What are examples of Monosaccharides?
A
3 carbons: triose - glycoriade C3H6O3
5 carbons - ribose C5H10O5 and deoxyribose C5H10O4
6 carbons - glucose C6H12O6
21
Q
What are examples of Disaccharides?
A
they are double sugar
Sucrose (glucose and fructose)
Maltose (glucose and glucose form maltose through a dehydration reaction)
21
Q
What are examples of Polysaccharides?
A
they are repeated units of monomers
Starch + Cellulose = glucose
Starch - easily degraded by enzymes
Cellulose - strong/stable
Chitin - amino sugar (has nitrogen)
22
Q
What are lipids?
A
Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Lipids include: Fats and oils (triglycerides) Phospholipids
23
Q
What are the functions of lipids?
A
Important in membrane structure and function (phospholipids)
Important as an energy storage molecule (2x energy from fat than from sugar)
Structural basis for some hormones and vitamins
24
What are Triglycerides?
fats (if solid at room temperature) and oil (if liquid at room temperature)
25
What is Cholesterol?
a steroid in which is synthesized in the liver from saturated fatty acids. It also degrades it
26
What are the two types of lipoproteins?
Low density lipoproteins (LDL) - delivery trucks
High density lipoproteins (HDL) - garbage trucks
27
What are steroids?
4 fused carbon rings
Some hormones, including testosterone, are steroids
Steroids used to stimulate muscle growth can have side effects including liver cancer
28
What is level 1 of protein structure?
Level 1 primary structure: the unique sequence of amino acids (polypeptide) order is typically determined by genetics
29
What is level 2 of protein structure?
Level 2 secondary structure: localized folding/twisting which contributes to its 3D shape
30
What is level 3 of protein structure?
Level 3 tertiary structure: additional folding caused by interactions by R groups on amino acids.
31
What is level 4 of protein structure?
Level 4 quaternary structure: association between polypeptide chains
32
What are enzymes?
And what is their function?
Enzymes are proteins that change the rate of biochemical reactions, typically increasing the rate
The act in very small amounts
They act as catalysts (catalysts are not accepted or changed by the reaction)
They are specific
They lower the energy of activation, therefore typically increases the speed of the reaction
Does not affect or change free energy
33
What are nucleic acids?
Polymers of nucleotides
A nucleotide has a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a sugar
34
What are the Nitrogenous bases?
Four different types of nitrogenous bases are found in DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (U).
35
What are the functions of nucleic acids?
Useful for information transfer (genetic material is passed from generation to generation)
Protein synthesis
Transfer of chemical energy (ATP)
They can act as regulatory elements (micro RNA’s can regulate/interfere with genes by chopping up messenger RNA)
36
What is catabolism?
Degrade complex molecules in order to get energy
37
What is ATP?
Adenosine triphosphate (made up of adenine + ribose + 3 phosphates)
38
How do we get ATP?
Regeneration of ATP - efficient/fast
Aerobic respiration: provide energy for ATP synthesis
39
What is Glycolysis?
the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.
No oxygen needed (common to all living systems/no diversity)
40
Where does glycolysis occur?
in the cytosol
41
What are the steps of glycolysis?
Give up/put in 2 ATP’s to activate glucose because of the stability of glucose and energy is needed to break it down
2 PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde 3C)
Make 4 ATP’s and make 2 NADre
At the end of glycolysis, we have 2 pyruvates (3C)
42
What is Fermentation?
the process in which a substance breaks down into a simpler substance
43
How many ATP does fermentation leave us with?
2 ATP
44
is fermentation aerobic or anaerobic?
Anaerobic (no oxygen)
45
What happens in the Krebs Cycle?
complete the oxidation of glucose
Acetyl CoA (2C) + oxaloacetate (4C) to citrate (6C)
Net energy: 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADre, 2 FADre
After 3 stages, only have gotten (net)
10 NADre
FADre
46
Where does the respiratory chain occur?
Happens in the mitochondria
47
How does the Chemiosmotic gradient work?
Chemiosmotic gradient (used to make ATP)
Energy is used to pump H+(protons) across the inner membrane - passed through the inner membrane space
This sets up an electrochemical gradient (difference in charge and concentration of protons)
Protons flow back through ATP synthase (protein). This process helps make ATP
NADre = 2.5 ATP
FADre = 1.5 ATP
NOTE: 2NADre’s from glycolysis only worth 1.5 ATP’s each
48
What is the Light reaction of photosynthesis?
this is Photophosphorylation
produces oxygen and energy
Example: illuminate algae put in the dark with 14CO2
49
What is fixation in the light reaction?
taking up CO2 and turning it into an organic compound
50
What is the dark reaction of photosynthesis?
This is the Calvin Cycle
this reaction is light-independent. they don't need light directly, CO2 is reduced to CH2O (carbohydrates)
51
What are the products of a light reaction that are used in a dark reaction?
ATP and NADPre (products of a light reaction used in a dark reaction)
52
What are Photons?
energy comes from wavelengths (longer the wavelength, less the energy)
53
What is Chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll absorbs energy in the red/orange and blue range on the absorption spectrum which shows the wavelengths of light that are captured
54
What is an action spectrum?
When looking at what happens to the light, this is an action spectrum
55
What are the 3 processes of the Calvin cycle/dark reaction?
Fixation of Carbon, Reduction, and Regeneration
56
What are C3 plants?
Wheat, roses, and rice are C3 plants (normal plants)
57
What are C4 plants?
C4 plants have a structural separation of CO2 fixation and making sugar
58
What occurs in C4 plants?
- CO2 is fixed by PEP - this causes it to form a 4C (oxalate) then the 4C is transported to the Calvin cycle
- When the temp is high and light intensity is high, the stomates (openings in leaves for gas exchange) close/mostly close. When this happens the concentration of oxygen from inside the cell goes out and the concentration of CO2 goes down.
- Oxygen outcompetes CO2 for Rubisco
- Drains away lots of the fixed carbon and the photosynthesis rate goes down
- PEP carboxylase has a great affinity for CO2
59
What are CAM plants?
separate fixation and making sugar in time
60
What occurs in CAM plants?
In these plants, the stomata open at night which is when they fix them
C4 will release CO2 to the Calvin cycle which will result in sugar
They save water by closing the stomata in the daytime (cacti, pineapple)
61
What is Incomplete dominance?
results from a cross in which each parental contribution is genetically unique and gives rise to progeny whose phenotype is intermediate
62
what are the 4 blood types?
AB, A, B, and O
63
what are Antigens?
substance to which your immune system reacts
64
Antigens and Antibodies in blood type O?
Antigens: none
Antibodies: Anti A and Anti B
65
Antigens and Antibodies in blood type A?
Antigens: A-
Antibodies: Anti B
66
Antigens and Antibodies in blood type B?
Antigens: B
Antibodies: Anti A
67
Antigens and Antibodies in blood type AB?
Antigens: A and B (codominance)
Antibodies: none
68
What blood type is a universal donor?
Type O
69
What blood type is a universal recipient?
Type A
70
What is the genotype for type O blood?
ii
71
What is the genotype for type A blood?
I^A I^A or I^Ai
72
What is the genotype for type B blood?
I^B I^B or I^Bi
73
What is the genotype for type AB blood?
I^A I^B
74
What is Complementation and an example of this?
Cross: white flower sweet pea plant x white flower sweet pea plant
F1 have purple flowers x purple
F2 have 9 purple : 7 white
75
What is info transfer?
DNA → mRNA → proteins
duplicated/transferred
76
What is cell division?
Qualitative/quantitative division → mitosis
77
What is mitosis?
Occurs in eukaryotes
Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division).
78
What is interphase?
non-dividing
Take DNA (on chromosomes that are long thread-like structures)
Replicate chromosomes → 2 copies of each chromosome (sister chromatids that are connected by a centromere)
79
What is prophase?
Individual chromosomes become visible
Humans have 23 pair (diploid or 2n) = 46 chromosomes (haploid or n)
Fruit flies have 4 pair (diploid or 2n) = 8 chromosomes (haploid or n)
Eggs/sperm are haploid
Spindle fibers start to form
80
What is metaphase?
2 chromatids arrange in middle of the cell on equational plate
Spindle fibers attach
Each chromosome is independent
81
What is Anaphase?
Chromatids separate (they go to opposite sides of the cell)
They gain a centromere, which is now chromosomes
82
What is telophase?
A new nuclear membrane is formed
83
What is cytokenisis?
cytoplasm divides, resulting in two (2n) daughter cells
84
What is G1 phase?
G1 Phase = Gap 1 (single, unreplicated chromosome)
Cell can exit the cell cycle at the G1 restriction checkpoint
85
What is G0 phase?
G0 (non-dividing)
Apoptosis occurs
86
what is apoptosis?
the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development
87
What is S phase?
S Phase (DNA synthesis)
Genetic material replicated
2 chromatids
88
What is G2 phase?
G2 Phase
Cells prepare for mitosis
89
What is cancer?
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of a single cell (a cell with many mutations that grows quickly and cell division occurs at a rapid pace)
Cancer is a multi-step process in which genetic mutations in DNA cause cancer
90
What are oncogenes?
proteins in cell division
In a cancer cell, these proteins have mutations that permanently lock them to “on” in which cell division is accelerated and never slows or stops
91
what are tumor suppressor genes?
proteins that inhibit cell division
If this protein has a mutation, cell division cannot stop
92
What is a telomere?
The end of a chromosome is called a telomere. This shortens every time cell division occurs, but in cancer cells, this does not occur
93
What is metastasis?
Cancer cells have the ability to migrate, which is why it is so deadly
94
What is meiosis?
a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
95
What happens in meiosis?
1 pair of each homologous chromosome in the gamete (sperm)
Only 2n/diploid organs do meiosis
Only occurs in the reproductive tissues
96
What happens in Interphase in meiosis?
DNA is replicated
original chromosomes (2n) replicate
97
What happens in Prophase 1 in meiosis?
Homologous chromosomes will find a pair
Tetrad is the 2 chromosomes that each have 2 chromatids (4 chromatids)
Humans have 23 tetrads
Crossing over
spindle apparatus forms
98
What is crossing over?
When chromatids exchange genetic material
99
What happens in Metaphase 1 in meiosis?
homologous chromosomes (tetrads) line up on the equatorial plate
100
What happens in anaphase 1 of meiosis?
protein complex releases homologous pairs of chromosomes, which move to opposite ends of the cell (independent assortment)
101
What happens in telophase 1 of meiosis?
new haploid (n) nuclei
Half the chromosomes it started with, but still the same amount of DNA
Independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes
102
What happens in the interkinesis of meiosis?
Resting stage
DNA does not replicate again/NO DNA replication
103
What happens in Prophase 2 of meiosis?
(short, often non-existent phase)
spindle apparatus forms again
104
What happens in metaphase 2 of meiosis?
Chromatids are not identical because of crossing over (recombinant)
Chromatids line up on the plate
105
what happens in anaphase 2 of meiosis?
Centromeres separate/divide
sister chromatids move to opposite poles
106
what happens in telophase 2 of meiosis?
cells divide, forming 4 (1n) daughter cells, the nuclear membrane returns
Each of which can be different from one another
107
what is nondisjunction?
Chromatids do not separate
Gametes have 2 copies of a particular chromosome because it did not separate properly in meiosis
108
What is asexual reproduction?
An individual inherits all genes from one parent
Carbon copy
109
what is binary fission?
Prokaryotes
Single circular chromosomes then divide in half
No mitosis
110
what is budding?
Hydra
Forms from a mass of cells on the parent
Genetically identical
111
what is fragmentation?
example: Starfish
Broken-off pieces form a new individual
112
what is vegetative?
example: strawberries
Quaking Aspen (47,000 tree trunks connected)
Pando
Have runners and form individuals separately
113
what is Pathogenesis?
example: Lizard
Produce an organism from an unfertilized egg
Female diploid (2n)
Maps haploid (n)
114
what is sexual reproduction?
Pool genetic material into a single cell to produce a new individual that has a unique genome (combo)
115
what is Hermaphroditism?
one parent
Get both gametes from a single parent
Both male and female reproductive systems
Common in seed plants and invertebrates
Can mate with self or others
116
what is Dioecious?
2 parents
Mostly vertebrates
More than 2 parents
ART (assisted reproductive technology)
117
what is an example of dioecious?
1. In vitro fertilization
Embryos implanted into the women
10 - 25 % depending on a woman's age
2. Surrogate mother
5 “parents”
Egg donor, sperm donor, birth mother, intended mom, and intended dad
118
what is Conjugation?
Transfer of DNA segments between two cells in asexual gene variability
119
what is the Red Queen Hypothesis?
Rare genotypes help escape from parasites/predators
Driving force is interspecific interaction
Evolutionary arms race
Rapid genetic changes to keep up with the adaptions of the opponent
