Exam 1 Review Flashcards
(116 cards)
1
Q
What are the requirements to be an organism
A
must be composed of one or more cells
1
Q
Cell Theory
A
life is totally cellular
2
Q
What are the requirements to be a cell
A
-plasma membrane made of lipids and protein.
-information flow is DNA to RNA to protein
-have enzymes needed to maintain themselves and, in many cases, grow and divide to produce more cells
3
Q
DNA to RNA is
A
transcription
4
Q
RNA to protein is
A
translation
5
Q
translation occurs by
A
ribosomes
6
Q
All cells come from _____
A
previously existing cells
7
Q
All cells/organisms are related to the
A
original cell
8
Q
all cells share common mechanisms for ______ and _______
A
maintenance and reproduction
9
Q
what you learn from one cell can help you understand _____
A
others
10
Q
Cells vary in ____ and ______
A
structure and machinery
11
Q
cells can range from _____ to a _____
A
2 micrometers (bacteria) to a meter (giant squid neuron)
12
Q
bacterial –
A
prokaryotic
13
Q
Archaeon –
A
prokaryotic but with many processes related to eukaryotic cells
14
Q
eukaryotic –
A
focus of most details covered in BIO 315
15
Q
Cells vary in how they ____
A
function
16
Q
Single-celled organisms
A
the cell IS the organism
17
Q
there are many different types of single celled organisms such as
A
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
18
Q
Multicellular organisms –
A
cells within a single individual can differ structurally and functionally
19
Q
Cells are organized in _____ of different types. For example, _____
A
tissues, muscle
20
Q
different cell types in one individual have the same _____ but ______ different _____ of genes
A
genes, express, subsets
(aka same DNA, different proteins)
21
Q
How to study Cell Biology
A
- Microscopes
- other experimental approaches used in cell biology
22
Q
Light microscopes are either ___ or _____
A
simple, compound
23
Q
A simple light microscope has ___ lens
A
one
24
A compound light microscope has ___ lens
two or more
25
Advantages of light microscopes
less sample preparation needed (can be living cells)
26
Disadvantages of light microcopes
lower resolution and cells tend to be transparent
27
Resolution is
the ability to resolve two objects as different objects
28
What is the limit of resolution of light microscopes?
about 0.2 um -- about 1/2 wavelength of visible light
29
Bright Field Microscopes
white light illumination
30
In bright field microscopes the cells are ____, so observation requires _____ _____
transparent, enhancing contrast
31
Bright field microscopes use ___ or ____ that differentially stain cellular components
dyes or stains
32
Bright field microscopes use ____ _____
special optics
33
Fluorescence microscopes make specific details within cells detectable using ______ _____
fluorescent molecules
34
Fluorescent microscopes ____ light or one wavelength and ____ at a ____ wavelength
absorb, emit, longer
35
____ microscopes and _____ _____ microscopes are both types of fluorescent microscopes
confocal, superresolution fluorescent
36
Confocal microscopes use ____ to ____ light scatter and ____ resolution, especially in _____ samples
lasers, decrease, increase, thicker
37
Superresolution fluorescent microscopes use multiple ____ to ____ resolution.
lasers, increase
38
Superresolution Fluorescent microscopes have an optical resolution of ____
20 nm (10 times smaller than light or fluorescent microscopes)
39
Electron Microscopes (EM) use _____ instead of visible light
electrons
40
Electron Microscopes have a _____ wavelength and a ____ higher resolution
smaller, higher
41
Electron microscopes have a resolution of ____
5 nm
42
Advantages of Electron microscopes
higher resolution (our concepts of sub-cellular structures is based on EM)
43
Disadvantages of electron microscopes
-extensive processing of samples required
-harsh fixation, staining with metals required
44
Types of electron microscopy:
X-ray crystallography and cyro-electron microscopy
45
X-ray crystallography and cyro-electron microscopy
detect individual atoms of biological molecules
46
Biochemistry
breaking tissue into cells and cells into component parts to study specific cells and specific sub-cellular components
47
Advantages of biochemistry
get details of the structure and function of cellular components
48
Disadvantages of biochemistry
lose information on the organization of these components
49
Genetics
taking advantages of genetic alterations that allow some components or processes in cells to be more easily studied
50
The study of human genetics _____ links ____/____/____ to specific cellular processes. EX: ____, ____, _____
diseases, genes, proteins, RNAs, sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, albinism
51
You can use genetics for the ____ or _____ of ____ forms of other organisms
isolation, creation, mutant
52
Creating _____ ____ version of proteins to identify which ____/_____ type contain them and/or determine their specific ____ within cells
fluorescently tagged, cells/tissues, location
53
___ and ____ genes to study the _____ of the ____/____ they encode.
cloning, manipulating, function, proteins/RNAs
54
Example of cloning and manipulating genes: making specific ____ using _____/____ technology to mutate specific ____ to determine what goes wrong
mutations, CRISPR/Cas, genes
55
Example of cloning and manipulating genes: ____ experiments to identify the ____ in one organism that has the same _____ as one in the other
rescue, gene, function
56
the ___ gene that regulates ___ ____ was identified by finding the human gene that rescued a _____ cell division mutant (called ____)
human, cell division, yeast, cdc2
57
Eukaryotic cells have
multiple internal membrane-bound compartments (membrane bound organelles)
58
What are the two major compartments in eukaryotic cells?
nucleus and cytoplasm
59
Nucleus
bounded by a double membrane = nuclear envelope
60
Cytoplasm
everything inside the plasma membrane and outside the nucleus
61
Cytosol
fluid filled space outside the membrane
62
The particular model organism chosen depends on the ______
question
63
Bacteria are typically used to study...
basic genetic and molecular biology processes
64
The basic genetic and molecular biology processes include
the central dogma, nature of the gene, how food molecules are converted into energy and used as building blocks
65
Yeast are typically used to study....
the basic mechanisms common to eukaryotes
66
Yeast is the
eukaryotic bacterium
67
The basic mechanisms common to eukaryotes includes
cell division, structure and function of eukaryotic organelles, eukaryotic-gene structure and gene expression
68
Drosophila melanogoster and C. elegans are typically used to study
the basic process of cellular differentiation and animal development
69
Zebrafish are typically used to study
vertebrate development and regeneration
70
Mice are typically used to study
mammalian-specific process of development and physiology
71
Human cell cultures are typically used to study
specific cell types that can be cultured in vitro
72
Genetic material is contained in structures called
chromosomes
73
Chromosomes contain ____ and ____. This material is called ____
chromatin
74
The sequence of _____ in DNA contains the ____ _____.
nucleotides, genetic information
75
Different ____ contain different ____ ______
chromosomes, DNA sequences
76
A ___ is a ___ of genetic information
gene, unit
77
___ can code for ____ (___-____ ____) or ___ (___ ___)
genes, proteins, protein-coded genes, RNA, RNA genes
78
____ chromosomes contain more ___ than ___ chromosomes
larger, genes, smaller
79
The ___ and ____ modifications to those proteins organizes the ___ in ways that affect how the _____ ____ will be used
proteins, chemical, DNA, genetic information
80
DNA is composed of ____ strands of ______ ____ wound around each other in a _____ ____.
two, deoxyribonucleic acid, double helix
81
Each strand of DNA is a chain of ______, connected to each other by ______ bonds
deoxyribonucleotides, phosphodiester
82
Deoxyribonucleotides contain a ____ ____ that has a ____ group attached to the ___ sugar carbon and ____ ___, ____, _____, ____, or ____, to the ___ sugar carbon
deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, 5', nitrogenous base, adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), `1'
83
The _____ in one DNA strand are all oriented in the ____ ____, which is determined by the __ and ___ sugar carbons.
nucleotides, same direction, 3', 5'
84
The ___ group on the __ sugar carbon is attached to the ___ group on the ___ sugar carbon in what is called a _____ bond.
phosphate, 5', hydroxyl, 3', phosphodiester
85
The ___ of the nucleotides is one strand is ____ to the orientation in the other strands, so the strands are said to be _____ to each other, with one running __ to __ in one direction and the other running __ to __ in the opposite direction.
orientation, opposite, antiparallel, 5', 3', 5', 3'
86
The two strands in DNA are bound together by ____ _____ between ____, with __ bonded to __ by ___ hydrogen bonds and __ bonded to __ by ___ hydrogen bonds.
hydrogen bonds, bases, A, T, two, G, C, three
87
The bonded bases, A with T and G with C, are called ___ ____
base pairs
88
Since AT base pairs only have two hydrogen bonds whereas GC base pairs have three, the two strands in DNA molecules that have a higher GC content are more _____ bound together than the strands with a lower GC content.
tightly
89
The number of DNA molecules per chromosomes is ____ at different stages of the ___ _____
different, cell cycle
90
The cell division cycle is a description of the events between the moment a cell is ____ through the time that the cell has ____, ___ its contents, and ____ to produce __ cells.
created, grown, doubled, divided, two
91
G1 phase
just born, DNA content not duplicated (unreplicated chromosome)
92
S phase
DNA is being actively replicated
93
G2 Phase
DNA has been replicated, cells readying for cell division (replicated chromosome)
94
M phase
replicated chromosomes are folded up (condensed), then split into two unreplicated chromosomes and separated into two new cells
95
Each chromosome in a G1 phase cells contains one ____, _____ ______ DNA molecule
long, double stranded
96
Each chromosome in an S phase cell contains ____ that is undergoing ____
DNA, replication
97
Each chromosome in a G2 phase cell is completely ____ and contains ___ double-stranded DNA molecules
replicated, two
98
Each chromosome in an M phase cell up to metaphase contains ____ double-stranded DNA molecules and contains ___ after anaphase begins
two, one
99
The ____ of genetic material in the nucleus is _____
location, organized
100
each chromosome occupies a ___ location in the nucleus -- ____ ____
discrete, chromosome territories
101
heterochromatin
highly compacted chromosome structures
102
heterochromatin are located at the ____ of the nucleus
periphery
103
DNA is folded up into ____ more ____ chromosome structures
increasingly, compact
104
____ + histones ___, ____, ___, and ____ form nucleosomal DNA (beads on a string)
DNA, H2A, H2B, H3, H4
105
_____ DNA + histone ___ forms coiled nucleosome fibers
nucleosomal, H1
106
Coiled nucleosome fibers are looped into looped domains by _____
cohesins
107
Loops are folded up further by _____ during M phase
condensins
108
Interphase is
G1, S, and G2
109
Interphase chromosomes contain _____, _____ _____, and ____ _____
euchromatin, constitutive heterochromatin, facultative heterochromatin
110
Euchromatin is the _____ folded chromosome structure, containing genes that can be ____
least, expressed
111
Heterochromatin is a more ____ folded, _____ chromosome structure , containing genes that are not being _____
highly, compact, expressed
112
Constitutive heterochromatin is found in chromosome regions that are _____ packed in heterochromatin (____ and _____)
always, centromeres, telomeres
113
Facultative heterochromatin is found in chromosome regions that are packed in ____ in some cell types but in _____ in others
heterochromatin, euchromatin
114
The structure of chromatin at a particular location on a chromosome can be _____/______
modified/regulated
115
