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Psy 355 - 1 > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Cognitive psychology?

A

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that is concerned with the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, probelm solving, creactivity and reasoning.

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2
Q

What was Wilhelm Hunt noted for?

A

William Hunt is most noted for Structuralism, which involves describing the structures that composes the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components.

Method - Introspection

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3
Q

What was Hermann Ebbinghaus noted for?

A

Hermann Ebbinhhaus is most known for the “forgetting curve” which relates forgetting to the passage of time. He taught himself lists of nonsense syllables and examined rate of forgetting.

Quantified the study of memory

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4
Q

What was William James noted for?

A

Williamm James is nost known for Functionalism, which was to study the processes of mind rather than its contents.William James wote his first psychology textbook titles Principles of Psychology in 1890.

Methods of Functionalism are:

Introspection - a process that looking inward to examine one’s thoughts and emotions.

Observation - looking at the performance of the person

Experiment - with the brain

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5
Q

What was Watson/Skinner noted for?

A

Watson/Skinner most noted for Behaviorism the study of observable behavior

Methods- He performed animal experiments, conditioning experiments

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6
Q

What is the Information processing approach?

A

The Information Processing Approach is viewed as how people preceive, analyze, manipulate, use and remember information. The mind acting like a computer, it takes in information and stores it. Donald Broadbent (1926-1993) is the main proponent.

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7
Q

Who was the main proponent of the information processing approach?

A

The main proponent of the Information Processing Approach was Donald Broadbent, who beleived the mind is like a computer.

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8
Q

Who wrote the first Cognitive Psychology textbook?

A

The person who wrote the first Cognitive Psychology textbook is Ulric Neisser in 1967.

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9
Q

Who presented arguments against behaviorism?

A

Noam Chomsky presented arguments against behaviorism. He is best known for his work in linguistics, Chomsky’s primary contribution to the field of psychology was to situate the process of language learning as an important part of the field of cognitive psychology. Chomsky is best known for his influence on linguistics, specifically, the development of transformational grammar.

Arguments from language acquisition
Children producing novel sentences
Infinite sentences

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10
Q

What is the name of the cell that is specialized to receive and transmit information in the nervous system? (Also called the building block of the nervous system)

A

The name of the cell that is specialuzed to receive and transmit information in the nervous system is the Neuron.

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11
Q

Part of a cell that contains mechanisms that keep the cell alive

A

The part of the cell that contains mechanisms that keep the cell alive is called the Soma or cell body.

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12
Q

Structure that branches out from the cell body to receive electrical signals from other neurons

A

The structure that branches out from the sell body to receive electrical signals is called the Dendrite. The aaxons talk to this cell and they receive the information.

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13
Q

Part of the neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to the synapse

A

The part of the neiron that transmits signals from the body to the synapse is called the Axon or never fiber this talks to Dendrite.

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14
Q

Part of the neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to the synapse

A

Axon or nerve fiber

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15
Q

Space between the end of an axon and the cell body or dendrite of the next axon.

A

The space between the end of an axon and the cell body or Dendrite of the next axon is called the Synapse (Site of communication between neurons).

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16
Q

Neuron that is specialized to receive information from the environment

A

The neuron that is specialized to receive information from the enironment is known as the Receptor.

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17
Q

What is the basis of communication between neurons?

A

The basis of communication between the neurons is Electricity. It is conducted in the nervous system through the generation of action potentials.
Electrical signals travel down the axon of a neuron.

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18
Q

How does action get communicated between cells?

A

Action potential
soma to down the axon to synapse
No physical contact

Communication in the synapse occurs via the release of neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter travels to receptor sites on the dendrites of another cell

Presynaptic & postsynaptic

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19
Q

How does communication in the synapse occur?

A

Communication in the synapse occurs via the release of neurotransmitters.

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20
Q

What are the chemical messengers between neurons called?

A

The chemical messengers between neurons are called Neurotransmitters.

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21
Q

What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A

The difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are:

  • Excitatory** neurotransmitters **Increase the rate of firing of action potentials on postsynaptic cell.
  • Inhibitory** neurotransmitters **decrease the rate of firing of action potentials on postsynaptic cell.
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22
Q

How do neurons facilitate learning?

A

Neurons facilitate learning, when a neuron fires (or does not fire) consistently, the likelihood and frequency of it firing in the future is altered. Groups of these “altered” neurons result in the learning of information

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23
Q

What results from patterns of firing in neural circuits (groups of neurons)?

A

Patterns of firing in neural circuits (groups of neurons) results in Cognition.

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24
Q

Name the 4 lobes of the brain in a clockwise direction starting from the front.

A

The 4 lobes of the brain are:

  • *Frontal lobe** - voluntary movement, expressive language
  • *Parietal lobe** - sensory perception and integration
  • *Occipital lobe** - visial processing
  • *Temporal lobe** - auditory stimuli, memory, and emotion
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25
What are **4 other important areas of the brain**?
The **_4 other important areas of the brain_** are: * *Hippocampus** - learning and memory * *Amygdala** - processing fearful and threatening stimuli * *Cerebellum** - coordination and movement related to motorskills * *Medula** - transmitting signals between the spinal cord
26
Where in **the brain do higher order functions occur**? | (Language, thought, memory, problem solving, judgment, and some motor functioning)
The **Frontal lobe is where language, thought, memory, problem solving, judgment, and some motor functions occur**.
27
Which part of the brain **Integrates information involved in vision and attention processes, and integrates sensation from different modalities including touch**?
The **Parietal lobe integrates information involved in vision and attention processes, and integrates sensation from different modalities including touch**.
28
Which part of the brain **is responsible for auditory processes, hearing, language, and speech and is also associated with memory**?
The **temporal lobe is responsible for auditory processes, hearing, language, and speech and is also associated with memory.**
29
What part of the brain **receives and processes visual information coming into the brain**?
The **Occipital lobe receives and processes visual information** coming into the brain.
30
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
The **cerebellum is responsible for**: **Sensory perception** - the process of becoming aware of something through the senses. **Motor output** - a response that is caused by activating effector organs. **Proprioception** - ability to sense stimuli arising within the body regarding position, motion, and equilibrium.
31
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
Important in memory Spatial functioning
32
What is the purpose of the amygdala?
Memory formation Specifically emotional memories
33
What is the purpose of the thalmus?
Important for processing in senses of vision, hearing, and touch
34
What are 3 techniques used to study the brain?
Measuring neural activity Measuring blood flow Measuring brain damage
35
What is an event related potential (ERP)?
The brain’s electrical response to an event (stimuli) Stronger response to unexpected stimuli
36
What is PET (Positron Emission Tomography)?
It is a Radioactive tracer is injected into bloodstream that a PET apparatus measures to detect the amount of tracer in each location of the brain
37
What is fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)?
Uses magnetic field to measure blood flow and Measures blood flow without radioactive tracers
38
What is Brain Lesioning?
Intentional damage or removal of part of the brain in animals, en vivo. It allows us to see which cognitive impairments are associated with certain brain areas.
39
What is study of the behavioral effects of brain damage in humans called?
Neuropsychology
40
What are experiences resulting from the stimulation of the senses and constitute the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information?
Perception
41
True or False. Perceptions are always the result of conscious experience
False
42
What does perceptual processing require?
Incoming information and prior knowledge
43
Perception that may start with the senses, and have incoming raw data? Hint: Energy registering on receptors
Bottom-up processing
44
Perception that may start with the brain and depends on a person’s knowledge, experience, expectations?
Top-down processing
45
What is a another name for bottom-up processing?
Data-driven processing
46
What is another name for top-down processing?
Knowledge-driven processing
47
Do expectations affect top-down or bottom-up processing?
Top-down
48
What is speech segmentation?
The ability to tell where one word ends and the other begins
49
What are Perceptual Constancies?
Perpetual Constancies allows us to perceive something accurately even in different viewing conditions
50
What are the four constancies in perception?
◦Viewpoint invariance ◦Shape constancy ◦Size constancy ◦Color constancy
51
When we can recognize that an object is the same even from different viewpoints its called: ◦Viewpoint invariance ◦Shape constancy ◦Size constancy ◦Color constancy
Viewpoint invariance
52
When an object’s perceived shape stays the same regardless of the angle from which we view it is called: ## Footnote ◦Viewpoint invariance ◦Shape constancy ◦Size constancy ◦Color constancy
Shape constancy
53
When the brain perceives an object size as constant it's called: ◦Viewpoint invariance ◦Shape constancy ◦Size constancy ◦Color constancy
Size constancy
54
When perceive the object as continuing to have the same brightness though lighting may change the appearance of it's color or brightness it's called: ## Footnote ◦Viewpoint invariance ◦Shape constancy ◦Size constancy ◦Color constancy
Color Consancy
55
Professor of physiology and physics noted for unconscious inference (likelihood principle)?
Hermann Helmholtz - noted for the beleife that some perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment
56
What is the name given to perception that consists of the adding up of small elementary units
Structuralism
57
What did Gestalt believe?
Gestalt rejected structuralism and believed the whole is greater than the sume of its parts.
58
What are Gestalt's heuristics (a rule of thumb that provides the best guess solution to a problem)?
Simplicity Similarity Proximity Continuity Closure
59
Gestalt's heuristic that state we see objects in its simplest form? 1. Continuity 2. Law of Pragantz 3. Proximity 4. Similarity
Law of Pragantz (Similarity)
60
Gestalt's heuristic that state we group things that are near to one another? 1. Continuity 2. Law of Pragantz 3. Proximity 4. Similarity
Proximity
61
Gestalt's heuristic that state we perceive objects as following the smoothest path and continues a pattern even when it stops? 1. Continuity 2. Law of Pragantz 3. Proximity 4. Similarity
Continuity
62
Gestalt's heuristic that state we add missing elements to complete a figures? 1. Continuity 2. Law of Pragantz 3. Proximity 4. Closure
Closure
63
How can you determine the shape of an object?
You make inferences about the shape of an object because we have a built in capacity to see light shining from above
64
The ability to complete objects that seem to have objects in front of them its called?
An occlusion heuristic
65
What is memory?
The process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present
66
Describe the information processing approach
Incoming information goes to sensory memory, then short-tem memory with rehearsal, then long term memory. It's easier to forget in sensory and short-term memory
67
What are the structural components of the modal model
Sensory memory Short term memory (STM) Long term memory (LTM)
68
Physical simuli that is received by sensory receptors occur where?
Sensory memory
69
Describe sensory memory
•Lasts between fractions of a second and a couple seconds depending on the modality ◦ Vision ◦Iconic memory ◦Sound ◦Echoic memory * Limited duration (a few seconds) * Limited capacity
70
Describe short-term memory(STM)
* Stores small amount of information for brief period of time * 15-20 seconds * Decay vs. interference
71
Describe capacity of STM
Items stored are not necessarily singular items but in chunks Chunks: ◦Collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks George Miller: 7+/- 2 items
72
What is Working Memory?
•A limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning and reasoning. Can store and manipulate
73
Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad, Central Executive are components of what?
Working Memory
74
What is Baddely's Working Memory Model?
The Phenological Loop and Visuospatial sketchpad is linked by the Central Executive
75
Describe phonological loop?
* Holds verbal and auditory information * Necessary for verbal tasks * Two parts ◦Storage – holds memory trace, fades in 2s ◦Passive ◦Rehearsal – responsible for repetition that refreshes the memory trace ◦Active ◦Episodic Buffer
76
Describe Visuospatial sketchpad
* Holds visual and spatial information * Active when you form a picture in your mind
77
Describe the Central Executive
•Pulls Information from LTM ◦Coordinates activity of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad * Focuses on specific parts of the task * Switches information from one part to another
78
What is the evidence of specialized phonological loop? ## Footnote ◦Phonological similarity effect: similar sounds are easily confused ◦Word-length effect: Shorter words are easier to remember than longer words ◦Articulatory suppression: repeating irrelevant words interferes with memory ◦All the above
All the above
79
What is articulatory suppression?
•Repeating irrelevant words interferes with memory ◦Interferes with operation of the phonological loop •Interacts with other effects ◦Word length and Phonological similarity
80
What is the physiology of working memory?
•During delayed-response task neurons continue to fire after the presentation of a stimulus ◦Contingent on the type and location of stimuli
81
How does Working Memory develop?
* All capacities of working memory seem to improve with age * Ability to perform complex tasks increase with age * Development of PFC increases with age
82
What is the extent of LTM?
•Duration: minutes to decades and contains archives of information ◦Organized by meaning
83
What is the Primacy Effect?
•extra rehearsal time given to words at the beginning of the list ◦ rehearsed throughout the whole list ◦Evidenced by Rundus (1971)
84
What is/causes the Recency Effect?
•Due to the presence of words in STM “Rehearsal buffer •Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) ◦Distractor task eliminates recency
85
What is the Serial Position Effect?
•Evidence that STM and LTM are two different things ◦Different factors influence primacy and recency
86
What is the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations in our environment
Attention
87
What is selective attention?
Attending to one thing while ignoring others
88
What is divided attention?
Paying attention to more than one thing at a time
89
What are the characteristics of attention?
* What we are conscious of * Limited capacity * Occurs after sensation * Interacts with perception * Important for memory, language, and problem solving
90
How do we measure attention?
•Biological measures ◦Pupil dilation ◦Brain wave activity (e.g. EEG) •Perceptual measures ◦Eye movements (visual scanning) ◦Saccades: rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another ◦Fixations: short pauses on points of interest ◦Studied using an eye tracker •Experimental measures
91
What is dichotic listening?
One message is presented to one ear while another message is presented to the other (Cherry, 1953)
92
What is shadowing?
◦Pay attention to one message, repeat it out loud while ignoring other ◦Measure of selective attention
93
What is the Cocktail Party Effect?
Ability to pay attention to one auditory message and ignore all others
94
What is the Filter Model of Attention
•Selective attention is achieved by the filtering out of unattended messages ◦Between sensation and perception Information processing model introduced by Broadbent (1958)
95
What is the evidence against the Filter Model?
•Sometimes, meaningful information presented in unattended channel ear is processed ◦Passed through the filter •Not filtered out by its physical characteristics ◦Suggests that information is not filtered out before meaning is attached
96
What is Treisman’s Attenuation Theory?
In Treisman's attenuation model, the selective filter distinguishes between two messages on the basis of their physical characteristics, such as location, intensity and pitch The attenuation model therefore proposes that there is a decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message
97
What is task load in attention?
The extent to which unattended visual information is perceived depends on the perceptual load of the attended task, such that increasing the level of perceptual load in the task decreases processing of task-irrelevant stimuli •How many attentional resources are required ◦Determines the most appropriate model
98
What is low task load?
In low task load: ## Footnote ◦Resources remain to process other information ◦Distractors compete for attention
99
What is High task load?
◦In High Task load only information for the important task gets through
100
What is automacity?
Automaticity is the ability to do most things without occupying the mind with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an automatic response pattern or habit. It is usually the result of learning, repetition, and practice. Examples of tasks carried out by 'muscle memory' often involve some degree of automaticity.
101
What was the gamers study?
Green and Baviler studied gamers. ## Footnote * Distractors had an influence even when they should have been filtered out * Attend to competing demands more easily
102
What is divided attention?
The ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands
103
What factors affect divided attention?
◦Practice (at one of the tasks) ◦The difficulty of the task (task load) ◦The type of task
104
What is the effect of task load?
The harder the task the more controlled processing (attention) is needed and the less able one is to do other things The more difficult a task the less likely it is that it can easily be performed simultaneously with another task Easy or familiar tasks – more top down processing
105
What is the name for nability to perceive features in a visual scene when the observer is not attending to them?
Inattentional blindness ## Footnote •Limited capacity for attention limits the amount of information processed at any particular time
106
What is binding?
◦Color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object
107
What is Feature Integration theory?
Treisman and Schmidt (1982) designed an experiment to show that features may exist independently of one another early in processing. The feature integration theory provides explanation for illusory conjunctions; because features exist independently of one another during early processing and are not associated with a specific object, they can easily be incorrectly combined both in laboratory settings, as well as in real life situations.
108
What is Encoding in LTM?
◦The process of acquiring information and transforming it into memory
109
What is Retrieval in LTM?
◦The process of recovering previously encoded information
110
How is information encoded?
•We encode information through rehearsal ◦Maintenance rehearsal – simply repeating in your mind ◦Elaborative rehearsal – creating meaning or making connections with already stored info
111
What is elaborative encoding?
•More effective way to encode information ◦Maintenance keeps in in STM, elaboration helps transfer to LTM
112
What is depth of processing?
A level of processing theory where memory depends on the way information is encoded
113
What are Depth of processing levels?
Shallow Processing Deep Processing
114
◦Little attention to meaning and Attention to physical features is called:
Shallow processing
115
The attention to meaning and relationships with existing knowledge where more elaborate information is better encoded is called:
Deep processing
116
Provide examples of Deep Processing:
* Creating a story * Questions about meaning Survival processing •Visual imagery ◦Concreteness •Self-reference ◦Personally relevant •Organizing information
117

Psy 355 - 1 (4 decks)

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