Exam

Question 1

“50-500” rule

Answer 1

The 50/500 rule was made in 1980 by Australian geneticists to define a minimum lower threshold to prevent genetic loss (viable effective population size (N(e)). 50= minimum population size to combat inbreeding, a minimum. Of 500 individuals needed to reduce genetic drift. Population size is extremely important in evaluating conservation priorities for a species. Small populations are at risk of going extinct because of demographic stochasticity and genetic drift.

Theoretical application: When attempting to recover extremely depleted populations, there is direct conservation efforts to get the adult population above 50 (>50), and continue recovery efforts until populations is above 500.

Question 2

“SLOSS” debate

Answer 2

The SLOSS is a ecology and conservation debate during the 1970 and 1980 regarding weather single large or several small reserves are superior in conserving biodiversity in a fragmented habitat.

Why is it relevant?

Question 3

Biological corridors

Answer 3

Wildlife corridors are connections across the landscape that link up areas of habitat. They support natural processes that occur in a healthy environment, including the movement of species to find resources, such as food and water.

They are very important for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems, as they allow species to reproduce and ensure exchange of individuals and genes between several populations. They contribute to genetic diversity of species and recolonisation of environments in the event of a disturbance. Ne = Population now. Difficult to use in marine concervation because we don’t know larval dispersal.

Question 4

Population viability analysis

Answer 4

PVA is mathematical/ ecological models that estimate changes in population size (N) over time based on life history and demographic rates, environmental factors, population pressures (threats) and genetic factors. It is applied in conservation biology to predict future scenarios for population growth and decline, as well as compare alternative options for their management. PVAs can be used as a basis for listing species as threatened and endangered under IUCN red list.

Question 5

Critically endangered species

Answer 5

A taxon is “Critically Endangered” when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as defined by any of the following criteria:
Population reduction:
- Observed population reduction of 80-90 % over the last 10 years or 3 generations.
- The species is found than less than 100 km2 area or 10 km2.
- Less than 250 mature individuals in the population
- Quantitve analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % over 10 years or three generations.

Question 6

Phylogenetic diversity

Answer 6

Diversity that includes how long the genetic distance is between species (Phylogenetic tree). Areas that have high phylogenetic differences (owl and fox) will also be an area with high species diversity. High species diversity supports better and more ecosystem function. Focusing on maximising phylogenetic diversity in conservation because it on average maximizes the protection many taxa

Question 7

Triple jeopardy

Answer 7

Triple jeopardy is a combination of social and biological factors that increase an animals extinction risk. Fish is particularly prone to extinction if it has a small range, is not abundant were it is found, and has specialised dieter, habitat, physiological or reproductive requirements. Some marine animals like sharks and rays face triple jeopardy due to their marine habitat. Large animals are typically more comen in this category as they take a long time to reproduce and mature, they can be hunted at a faster rate than they can reproduce. Whale shark example.

Question 8

Congruency

Answer 8

Similarity between difrent taxa, what might be good for one taxa might not be good for everyone. To make efffcent concervation you need congurancy (overlap) of taxas.

Question 9

Bioaccumulation

Answer 9

Bioaccumulation is a process of accumulation of chemicals in an organism that takes place if the rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion. Chemicals are introduced into the organism through exposure to the abiotic environment (soil, water, air) or as dietary intake (trophic transfer). Marine organisms that are filter feeders such as mussels are used to measure and monitor the consequences of industrial discharge as they are placed out in cages (they respond rapidly to changes in water quality and rapidly absorbs heavy metals etc.).

Question 10

mBACI” sampling design

Answer 10

Multiple before and after control Impact (mBACI), The purpose of which is to determine whether a particular disturbance (natural or human induced) causes a change in the population or assemblage. The method involves 2 or more controls and 2 or more impact sites. Good because of special replication

Question 11

Representative area

Answer 11

Identifying the main geographic gradients in an area (Species composition, habitat type etc.), and then choosing sites from the different habitat types. By establishing reserves at the different locations that represent different habitat types and species composition, a range of different communities and a greater biodiversity are protected.
o This require that we have a great deal of information to describe the major spatial patterns in community structure.
o Strategies used in reserving at the GBR

The Representative Areas Program (RAP) aims to enhance protection of the region’s biodiversity by developing a network of no-take areas that represents the range of habitats and communities within the Marine Park.

Question 12

Recruitment overfishing

Answer 12

Taking such a high proportion of the breeding stock that there is no longer enough juvenile recruitment to sustain the fishery or allow it to recover. Bigger K selected species are especially exposed to recruitment overfishing as they have few offspring and take a long time to reach maturity, so they cannot reproduce enough to replenish the population. The result of this is collapsed fisheries and species populations. This is an important focus area within conservation to put regulation on harvest amounts and have oversight of how much fish is being fished to monitor the abundance and regulate thereafter.

Question 13

Eutrophication

Answer 13

Accumulation of nutrients in the water results in algae dominating because of high nutrient availability. Fertilizer runoff to marine ecosystems can lead to algae bloom that now dominates. This can lead to bottom-up control. It results in deterioration of water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water, Algal blooms limit light penetration, reducing growth and causing die-offs of plants in littoral zones while also lowering the success of predators that need light to pursue and catch prey. Bacterial metabolism increases as benthic plants die, leading to conditions of hypoxia (low oxygen) and in extreme cases, anoxia (oxygen too low to support animals = dead zones). Eutrophication areas can eventually become dead zones.

Question 14

Dispersal kernel

Answer 14

Dispersal distance, (Distance and probability of dicpersal) the Euclidian distance between ‘start’ and ‘end’ points of a dispersal event, is recog-nized as a fundamental characteristic of the dispersal process and defined as the movement of dispers-ers (diaspores, propagules, gametes, or dis-persing) to where they establish.

Dispersal kernels are useful to MPA design (i.e. how far apart should MPA’s be?) and fisheries management as they can inform potential of population replenishment to surrounding unprotected or open fishing areas. For threatened species, they can also inform ‘rescue effect’ potential.

Question 15

Ecological extinction

Answer 15

Ecological extinction is the reduction of population densities to the point that the species no longer plays the same ecological role in communities. This is probably the most widespread and serious form of extinction in the marine environment. However, ultimately the ecosystem will collapse as the system runs out of ecologically equivalent species.

Question 16

Local extinction

Answer 16

Local extinction is the disappearance of a species in certain areas or loss of sub- populations, particularly in relation to exploitation and/or local pollution. Local extinction may not be a problem, provided that there is a source of juveniles for recovery. However, it can be a major problem when it concerns keystone species.

Question 17

Ecological traps

Answer 17

Species with complex and hard-wired life cycles can fall into what has become known as “ecological traps” in changing environments (Fig. 43). For example, the African penguin in South Africa evolved to migrate to locations that were the perfect temperatures for food production to the north. However, due to rising temperatures, the migration cues are now mis-matched with productivity. Their evolved habitat selection cues are now an ecological trap leading them to places they will suffer a high mortality.

Question 18

Umbrella species

Answer 18

Umbrella species are those species whose protection, because of their large area requirements, will automatically provide protected areas for a large number of small range species. Most umbrella species are large mammals and birds.

Question 19

Indicator species

Answer 19

Organisms having certain characteristics which make them suitable for detecting and forecasting impacts at some level of biological organization. Indicators species can be defined in what their effect does such as ecological factors, keystone species, umbrella species, flagship species, vulnerable species,

Question 20

Sentinel species

Answer 20

Sentinel species are often animals used to detect risks to humans by providing advance warning of danger. When a sentinel population changes (Increase or decrease) they will indicate population changes in other species as well. These species are high sensitive to environmental disturbances and are sometimes used in aquatic biological assessments to provide an early warning that more severe water quality conditions are likely to occur unless mitigation measures are taken. Species such as polar beers, bald eagles and dolphins because they accumulate persistent pollutants. Butterfly indicates the health of coral reefs

Question 21

Metapopulation

Answer 21

A collection of Subpopulations that are separated in space but connected by dispersal.
Immigration and emigration are key elements of population dynamics. Metapopulations are characterized by repeated extinctions and colonization of the small individual populations, but the metapopulation persists. Some are source and some are sink populations.

Question 22

Stock-recruitment relationship

Answer 22

The stock-recruitment (S/R) relationship is fundamental to the management of natural resources, especially fish and shellfish stocks. The nature of this relationship is used to determine to what extent a population may be harvested by either commercial or sport fisheries. Relationship between spawning biomass and the recruits that can be exploited.
The SRR is used to predict the average number of recruits that would be produced at different population sizes. R- selected species have a higher reproductive rate than K selected species and can therefore be harvested more. The spawning stock is defined, normally, as the number of female organisms in the population of reproductive age and able to reproduce in any one year. The recruits are defined as those young who survive to either maturity, or to be captured by the fishery.

Question 23

Trophic cascade

Answer 23

Trophic cascades are powerful indirect interactions that can influence and change entire ecosystems. They occur when predators limit the density and/or behaviour of their prey and by that enhance the survival of the next lower trophic level. This is important for conservation efforts as the reduction of key predators can change the entire species composition and abundance in a ecosystem.

Question 24

Complementarity

Answer 24

Complementarity is used as a criteria for selecting sites to maximize biodiversity in MPAs. It involves choosing sites with contrasting species composition (i.e. sites that are most different from those already chosen). This ensures that as much values biodiversity as possible is represented for conservation within constraints. Evidence suggests that biodiversity supports ecosystem functioning. Yet, the mechanisms driving this relationship remain unclear. Complementarity is one common explanation for these positive biodiversity–ecosystem functioning relationships.

Question 25

Diversity “hotspot”

Answer 25

Diversity hotspots are a areas with high species richness. The species richness is greatest in equatorial regions. There is a strong relationship with latitude and species diversity because the equatorial regions are the warmest and has the greatest amount of energy input from the sun. There is a lot of energy flowing in to the system, which supports a lot of plants, and a lot of plants support a lot of different trophic levels. These hotspots harbor species that are confined to these specific habitats. In conservation “hotspots” is an approach that focuses on conserving areas were many species are found, however it is usually these areas that faces great biodiversity loss because of developing communities (humans) that clears out forests and poverty (pollution). Because of this conservation efforts will have a low to minimal effect.

Question 26

Endemicity “hotspot”

Answer 26

This is a strategy used for conservation. Areas with the greatest number of native species/endemic.

Question 27

Dead zone

Answer 27

Dead zones are hypoxic zones with very low DO2. It is caused by massive growth of algae. As the algae die bacteria feed on them and in this process, they use up the available O2 in the water. The water becomes so low on O2 that it cannot support marine life.

Question 28

Habitat restoration

Answer 28

Habitat restoration has a focus on providing suitable environments and recourses for target species or groups of species that are in decline because of habitat destruction or natural degradation .

Question 29

Greenhouse effect

Answer 29

The greenhouse effect is a natural process were some gasses makes the earth’s surface wormer. This happens in other planets that also has an atmosphere. These gases absorb heat rays and some of that warmth is sent down to the surface. Light surface reflects the heat out again, dark surfaces absorb the heat. The more greenhouse gases there are in the atmosphere, the hotter the earth gets. There are many consequences of increased greenhouse effect such as the is is melting in the pole, The ocean absorbs most of the excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions, leading to rising ocean temperatures and leads to species migrating and trying to adapt, but many species will go extinct. As greenhouse gases trap more energy from the sun, the oceans are absorbing more heat, resulting in an increase in sea surface temperatures and rising sea level. Increased ocean acidity makes it more difficult for certain organisms, such as corals and shellfish, to build their skeletons and shells.

Question 30

Flagship species

Answer 30

Flagship species are species that are close to extinction, because of their status they are used as a ambassador to draw society’s attention towards the need for concervation. Species example such as Bengal tiger, African elephant, panda bear, coala. In conservation biology, a flagship species is a species chosen to raise support for biodiversity conservation in a given place or social context. ... It can change management and conservation priorities, which may conflict.

Question 31

Ocean acidification

Answer 31

Ocean acidification is a direct consequence of increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. The massive amount of carbon dioxide being absorbed by the ocean from the atmosphere dissolves in seawater as carbonic acid. When CO2 reacts with the ocean it reduces the pH of the water. Ocean acidification reduces the effectives and amount of calc, a key building block for corals, coraline algae, molluscs and sea urchins. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve. Leads to community shift, as food that many fish etc depend on will become in short supply, fish will also react with behavioural changes etc.

Question 32

Rarity

Answer 32

The low probability of encountering a species. Being rare can be associated with natural causes such as recourse specialisation when recourses are in low abundance, low reproductive effort/ few offspring, Poor dispersal/asexual reproduction, Large body size/ long lifespan.

Question 33

Rescue effect

Answer 33

Rescue effect is a process that explains how the migration of individuals can increase the persistence of small, isolated populations by helping to stabilize a metapopulation, and by that reducing the chances of extinction. Immigration can therefore lead to the recolonisation of a previously extinct patch.

Question 34

Shifting baseline

Answer 34

Shifting baseline describes a gradual change in the accepted norms for the condition of the natural environment due to lack of past information or lack of experience of past conditions.

Question 35

Hypercapnia

Answer 35

Hypercapnia is the flood of carbon dioxide in the oceans. This makes oceans more acidic, threatening corals, shellfish, and fish, and threatening to undermine entire marine ecosystems. Higher ambient CO2 raises blood and tissue CO2, this is counteracted by physiological process in osmoregulation of fish. Adult fish are generally more tolerant to hypercapnia than fish larva. Can result in behaviour changes etc.

Question 36

Habitat fragmentation

Answer 36

Habitat fragmentation is the fragmentation of habitats because of human invasion in nature because of agriculture, making of roads, urbanisation etc. Habitat fragmentation converts large areas of habitat into isolated patches, resulting in a metapopulation structure. As patches get smaller and more isolated, colonization decreases and extinction rate increases. This has a negative effect on species populations as it hinders genetic flow by immigration and emigration.

Question 37

Captive breeding

Answer 37

Captive bred animals are used to supplement a population or they may be reintroduced to a previously occupied area and used to replenish wild populations (zoos etc). This is the case for many extremely rear endangered species. This does not work all the time, because the threats that made them endangered in the first place is usually still there. But this is a method used in conservation as a tool for population restoration.

Question 38

Introduced or invasive species

Answer 38

Introduced species is when a new species that is not native to the ecosystem it is introduced to, this can affect and change the whole ecosystem as It can outcompete other species. It can alter the abundance and diversity of other species in the ecosystem/habitat and can therefore cause unforeseen cascade effect throughout food webs etc.

Question 39

Translocation

Answer 39

Conservation translocations are the deliberate movement of organisms from one site to another where the primary objective is a conservation benefit. The most common types of conservation translocations are reintroductions, where organisms are released into areas where the species previously existed, and reinforcements, where organisms are released into areas with existing populations of conspecifics to enhance the viability of the extant population.

Question 40

Population viability analysis

Answer 40

PVA is mathematical/ ecological models that estimate changes in population size (N) over time based on life history and demographic rates, environmental factors, population pressures (threats) and genetic factors. It is applied in conservation biology to predict future scenarios for population growth and decline, as well as compare alternative options for their management. PVAs can be used as a basis for listing species as threatened and endangered under IUCN red list.

Question 41

AIMS

Answer 41

The Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) has launched an open-access, cloud-based platform to enable scientists and researchers globally to work together in real-time to improve coral reef monitoring and accelerate the sustainable management of coral reefs.