Exam Flashcards
(204 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 parts of the great acceleration?
A
- cheap energy from fossil fuels
- abundant natural resources
- global expansion of farmland
2
Q
How is wealth divided?
A
- 46% of wealth controlled by richest 0.7%
- 97% of wealth controlled richest 30% (more than 10,000)
3
Q
How much of worlds population little to CO2 emissions?
A
Half
4
Q
How many people in Africa contribute to Co2 emissions?
A
More than 1 billion people contribute 4%
5
Q
Is unsustainable resource growth due to population growth of recourse use by wealthy?
A
Wealthy resource use
6
Q
How has population in urban areas changed?
A
1900, 2/10
2010, 5/10
2050, 7/10
7
Q
How much increase required in calories to feed 9.6 billion in 2050?
A
69%
8
Q
How much land is used food?
A
50% of worlds land
9
Q
How much does food contribute to GHG?
A
28%
10
Q
How much does food contribute to GHG?
A
28%
11
Q
What is needed for sustainable intensification of agriculture?
A
- increase yields
- reduce inputs
- improve soil health
12
Q
How much warmer is 2021 than pre industrial period?
A
1.04C
13
Q
What places contribute most to emissions/
A
NA - 25%
ASIA - 29%
EU - 22%
14
Q
Who began tracking CO2?
A
Charles Keeling 1957-58, South Pole and Hawaii
15
Q
How has ppm changed in Keeling curve?
A
315 in 1957 to 415 now
16
Q
Main GHG and %
A
CO2 - 66%
CH4 - 16%
N2O - 6%
17
Q
What is global warming potential (GWP)
A
compares integrated radiative forcing over specified period 298:25:1
18
Q
Main sources of CO2
A
- Electricity and heat (40%)
- Transport (21%)
- Manufacture and construction (16%)
19
Q
Main sources of CH4
A
- Agriculture (42%)
- Fugitive emissions (38%)
- Waste (18%)
20
Q
Main sources of N2O
A
- Agriculture (82%)
- Industry (9%)
- Waste (5%)
21
Q
Estimated value of terrestrial ecosystem
A
$75-85 trillion
22
Q
What is cultural heritage?
A
ecosystems have intrinsic values beyond monetary (aesthetic or recreational)
23
Q
What is global homogenisation of diets?
A
- Range of crops contributing to national food supply become more similar
- Caused by globalisation and urbanisation
- Increased preference for energy dense food
24
Q
How has food supply changed?
A
- supply of oils and meat doubled
- food calorie supply increased 33%
- cereal production increased 3.4x
- fertiliser application increased 9x
25
How much crop calories go to farm animals?
40%
26
How much do livestock outweigh wild mammals
14 to 1
27
Living planet index decline?
68%
28
How much does land use change contribute to GHG emmisons in food system?
33%
29
What cause extreme events to become more frequent?
Mean and variance
30
How has global extreme heat changed?
local record monthly temp extreme now 6x larger than with no climate change (80% new heat from climate change)
31
How does artic winter affect populations?
- Ice encasement and ice lenses 9rain on snow)
- Food planets inaccessible
- Damages plant (food)
32
Habar Bosch?
- produces 450 million tonnes of N fertiliser per year
- 3-5% of worlds gas production
- 2% of world energy
33
Aims of SDG?
17 SDGs
- end poverty
- protect planet
- all people enjoy peace and prosperity
34
How much calories lost in waste?
2441 daily calories per person
35
How do we plan to improve resource consumption, from linear to circular economy?
take, make, use, lose
reduce, reuse, recycle
36
What are co-benefits and trade offs?
Co-benefits - progress of one target enhances progress to another
Trade-off - progress of one target slows progress of another
37
What is an ecosystem?
physical area covered by groups of organisms experiencing similar environmental conditions (abiotic factors)
38
What is a biome?
Areas of vegetation characterised by same life form (particular climatic and soil conditions)
39
What are biotic and abiotic factors?
biotic - organism/organism
abiotic - organism/enviroment
40
What are the 2 types of interactions?
Trophic - primary producers, consumers, decomposers
Symbiotic - mutualism- parasitism, predation
41
What is the photosynthesis % efficiency?
5%
41
What is the land surface energy balance?
In - shortwave solar energy
Out - reflection, evaporation latent heat, sensible heat
42
What does vegetation control?
Evaporation - trees use more water than grass or soil
Also influences albedo
42
What is global evaporation?
transpiration through plants accounts for 80-90% of terrestrial evaporation
43
What are the 3 groups of factors affecting plant distribution?
climatic factors
physiographic factors
edaphic factors
44
What are climatic factors?
temperature, rainfall, light, wind, humidity
(responsible for regional and global distribution patterns)
45
What are physiographic factors?
determined by landforms and landscapes
altitude - (lapse rate), -6.5C per 1000m
aspect - direction of slope (influences irradiance received)
46
What are edaphic factors?
factors associated with soil:
- rooting medium
- source of water
- source of nutrients
47
What are conditions?
- environmental variables plants respond to
- not consumed
- some may help regulate availability of resources
48
What are resources?
- consumed by plants
- essential for growth
- different species have different capacities
49
What is the graph linking species richness and crop mass?
Grimes hump back curve
50
What is the reservoir effect?
sewer species adapted to grow on acidic soil than neutral
51
Facts about ocean
71% of world is ocean
average depth = 3,794m
maximum depth = 11,022
52
What are the major classes of marine life?
Benthic (on or in sea bed)
Demersal (associated with sea bed)
Pelagic (in water column, plankton and nekton)
52
What are the major classes of marine life?
Benthic (on or in sea bed)
Demersal (associated with sea bed)
Pelagic (in water column, plankton and nekton)
53
What are phytoplankton?
- overcome coastal dependence by being g small
- occurs through oceans
- responsible for 50% of photosynthesis and oxygen
54
What is the 2 layered ocean?
- light at the top, nutrients at the bottom
- if ocean was homogenous, life would not persist
55
What is NASAs MODIS?
- measures Chl a every day
- measures ocean colour
- many in situ measurements
56
How do we overcome the 2 layer ocean dilemma?
- mix of surface waters by wind
- Coriolis effects caused by earths rotation
- surface currents driven by ocean-atmosphere interactions
- upwelling of nutrient rich deep waters
57
What are the outcomes of mixed waters?
- patchy, highly structured ocean
- threats follow these boundaries
- marine ecosystems are distinctive
58
How do we divide up the ocean?
- Horizontally
- Vertically
- biologically
- biogeographically
- Politically
58
How do we divide up the ocean?
- Horizontally
- Vertically
- biologically
- biogeographically
- Politically
59
What are the 4 ocean depth zones?
Euphotic (50-100m)
Dysphotic (100-1000m)
Bathypelagic (1000-6000m)
Hadal zone (>6000m), ocean trenches
60
What are the 3 biogeographic definitions of marine ecosystems?
- Longhurst biogeographical provinces
- MEOW, marine ecoregion of the world
- Biogeography driven by species distribution
61
What is Longhurst biogeographical provinces?
Ocean divided into 4 biomes based on physical forces regulation distortion of phytoplankton:
- polar biome
- westerlies biome
- trade winds biome
- coastal boundary zone biome
62
What are Longhurst pros and cons?
- concentrates on planktonic ecosystem and physical oceanographic processes driving it
- large scale ecological studies
- dosent cover significant marine ecosystems or taxa
63
What is MEOW?
- motivated by conservation concerns
- coastal and shelf areas only
- cover what Longhurst dosent
64
MEOWs pros and cons?
- designed to be pragmatic and relevant to management and conservation
- good job for coastal and shelf ecosystems
- mot world oceans not covered by this scheme
65
How many realms, provinces and ecoregion are there?
Realms - 12
Provinces - 62
Ecoregion - 232
66
What political and management units divide up our oceans?
Large Marine ecosystem (LMEs)
Fisheries management zones
Exclusive economic zones (EEZs), exploration of resource
67
What is the anthrosphere?
Human component of earth system and its interaction with environment
68
What dies the earth being a closed system mean?
- resources are finite
- can't throw things away
- changes in one part will affect other parts
69
How do we identify complex systems?
Identify components
Determine residence time (how fast elements interact)
Identify deefback loops
70
What is residence time?
time taken to empty or fill reservoir
steady state, source = sink
71
What are the 3 main ways energy is transferred on earth?
Radiation, convection and conduction
72
What is the biggest carbon pool?
1) sedimentary rocks
2) ocean water
3) sea floor sediments
73
What is the fast carbon cycle?
- carbon on land, in vegetation, soils, peat, freshwater and atmosphere
- 10-10,000 years
74
What is the slow carbon cycle?
- carbon stores in rocks and sediments
- residence times >10,000 years
75
What is the CO2 fertilisation effect?
- negative feedback loop
- earth getting greener due to CO2, climate change and nitrogen deposition
76
What is NPP?
net carbon gained by plants
77
What is the solubility pump?
- atmosphere has higher concentration than ocean (pCO2)
- CO2 goes down gradient and co2 in water dissolves
(CO2 more soluble in colder waters)
78
What is the biological pump?
- controlled by co2 nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
- surface waters are depleted ion alkalinity and dissolved CO2 because pump exports them the deeper seas
79
What is the net flow of carbon in oceans?
net flow of 2 Gt C/yr into oceans
80
What are sources of methane?
Natural - wetlands, lakes, termites, wildfire, permafrost and oceans
Anthropogenic - fermentation and manure, landfills, waste, biomass boring, rice paddies
81
Difference between organic and inorganic carbon
inorganic - C extracted from ores and minerals
organic - found in nature from plants and living things
82
Explain inorganic carbon cycle
1) C leaves atmosphere by precipitation as carbonic acid and removal by silicate rocks
2) silicate rocks react with CO2 to form limestone
3) runoff from rocks moves carbonate ions into ocean, limestone and HCO3 ions buried by tectonic movements
4) this subduct into mantle and forms silicate metamorphic rocks under heat and pressure (release CO2 into mantle)
5) this is related through volcanic degassing
83
How are O and C linked biologically?
- O is a product of photosynthesis
- decomposition requires presence of O and makes CO2
83
How are O and C linked biologically?
- O is a product of photosynthesis
- decomposition requires presence of O and makes CO2
84
Why does O levels rise?
Burial of carbon
Burial of pyrite (pyrite forms in low oxygen enviroments)
85
How are fossil fuels formed?
Material in low oxygen environments is buried before decomposed
85
How are fossil fuels formed?
Material in low oxygen environments is buried before decomposed
86
What is the long term control of atmospheric O?
Formation and weathering of pyrite
87
What 3 ways do plants increase weathering?
1) increase rainfall from evapotranspiration
2) plant roots stabilise soil so rain washes over them
3) roots associations with fungi and secret organic acids into soil, lowers soil PH and increases weathering (also respire forming carbonic acid)
88
How does acid mine drainage affect C cycle?
Mining exposes pyrite to oxygen producing sulphuric acid, this weathers limestone relapsing CO2 and HCO3
89
Why does O decrease when CO2 increases?
- C contain material is burned of decomposed uses O2
- Deforestation reduces O2 production
90
What is enhanced rock weathering?
- physically break up silicate rocks for higher surface area
- carbon ends up in long term storage through run off
90
What is enhanced rock weathering?
- physically break up silicate rocks for higher surface area
- carbon ends up in long term storage through run off
91
Benefits of enhanced rock weathering?
- use industrial waste from mining silicate rocks
- used on agricultural so no competition for land
- fertilise land as contains phosphate
92
What is phosphorus found in?
DNA/RNA
Phospholipids
ATP
92
What is phosphorus found in?
DNA/RNA
Phospholipids
ATP
93
What is remote sensing?
sampling of emitted or reflected EM radiation form earth ecosystems to detect physical characteristics without making physical contact
94
What does the reflectance of EM radiation depend on?
surface roughness
angle of incidence
property of material
WL of radiant energy
95
Why is remote sensing used?
- repeatable measurements over time
- detect features we can't see with eyes
- satellite archive data
- quantitative information on earths surface
96
3 types of remote sensing platforms
Ground level remote sensing
Aerial remote sensing
Space borne RS
97
Difference between passive and active remote sensing
Passive - depends on sun irradiance
Active - uses artificial source for energy (day and night in all conditions)
98
4 types of resolution
- Spatial
- Temporal (frequency of image acquisition)
- Spectral (width of spectral waveband)
- Radiometric (discriminate differences in measured energy)
99
2 types of reflectance
Specular - surface smooth relation to wavelength
Diffuse - surface is rough relative to wavelength
100
Why is estimating soil moisture in root zone important?
Hydrological modelling
Monitoring of plant growth
Meteorological modelling
101
Limitations of remote sensing
- interpretation of imagery requires experience
- requires validation with ground data
- objects may be misclassified
- cloud cover
102
Why is nitrification important?
more mobile in soils - leaching risk
nitrate can be used as substitute for denitrification
realises N2O directly
102
Why is nitrification important?
more mobile in soils - leaching risk
nitrate can be used as substitute for denitrification
realises N2O directly
103
What are the denitrifying enzymes?
nitrate reductase
nitate oxide reductase
104
Where are ammonium oxidising enzymes found?
cell membrane
105
What environmental conditions does N2 and N2O affect?
oxygen
PH
nitrate levels/ C levels
106
Is nitrification and denitrification aerobic or anaerobic?
Nitrification - aerobic
Denitrification - anaerobic
107
What is a carbon stock and carbon pool?
Stock - amount of carbon that is stored in a system
Pool - system that has capacity to store or release carbon
107
What is a carbon stock and carbon pool?
Stock - amount of carbon that is stored in a system
Pool - system that has capacity to store or release carbon
108
What is a Eddy-covariance flux tower?
micro-meteorological method used to calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary
109
How can CO2 fluxes form biosphere be modelled using RS products?
- light use efficiency models
- terrestrial carbon models
110
How do you measure carbon stocks?
- Traditional measurement techniques (local scale, labour intensive)
- Below carbon stocks - use allometric equation
- Organic soil C stocks
111
3 RS techniques for monitoring carbon stocks
- Active microwave
- LiDAR
- Optical
112
How does active microwave work?
- Beam of microwave pulses transmitted from antenna
- Energy interacts with terrain and scattered
- Radar detects backscattered energy and determine distance and direction
113
What is LiDAR?
- laser generates optical pulse
- high speed counter measures time of flight to return
- time measurement converted to distance
114
What happened at COP26 for methane?
- 103 countries signed Global Methane Pledge
- reduce methane emissions 30% by 2030
115
What is the rumen?
Food enters here (largest chamber), fermentation starts
gas builds up and is eructed (burped)
116
What is the reticulum?
- 2nd chamber, extension of rumen
- large pieces of plant float here and are concentrated
- honeycomb structure helps form balls or cuds
117
What is the omasum?
- 3rd chamber
- muscular action breaks down material
118
What is the abomasum?
Final stomach chamber
Lysozymes secreted and digest remains and microbes that form part of bolus
119
What is the caecum?
- last chance for food to be broken down
- remains will be egested
120
What are the rumen conditions?
- large fermentation vat
28-42C
PH 6-7
Anerobic
120
What are the rumen conditions?
- large fermentation vat
28-42C
PH 6-7
Anerobic
121
What is the gain of glycolysis and Krebs cycle?
Glycolosis - 2 ATP, 1 NADH
Krebs - 2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2
122
What uncertainty is there surrounding climate change?
- natural climate variability (internal and external factors)
- uncertainty in future human-made emissions
- incomplete understanding of earth system processes
123
What are natural external influences on climate change?
- changes in amount of particles in atmosphere from volcanos (HAZE effect)
- suns energy
- important drivers before humans
124
What is the North Atlantic Oscillation?
- driver of winter climate variability
- wet winters in Europe
- cold/dry winter in Canada and Greenland
125
How does water vapour link to greenhouse effect?
- responsible for half of greenhouse effect
- increase water vapour amplifies warming by other GHG
126
How do animals respond to climate change?
Migrate, adapt or die
127
What are the 2 types of migration?
Altitude and latitude
128
What is climate velocity?
speed needed to move to keep pace with climate change (slowest in mountain biomes)
129
How does drought cause plant death?
- hydraulic and symplastic failure
- carbon starvation
- reduced resistance to biotic attack from insects and fungi
130
Ocean facts
- cover 71% of surface
- average depth of 4km
- 96% of all water on earth
131
Properties of water
- high specific heat capacity for room temp liquid
- dense
- water molecules held by H bonds
132
What impact does salt have on water?
- lowers freezing point
- density increases
- sea ice extrudes saltier water
133
What is thermohaline circulation?
how salt and temperature keep the ocean moving (cold water sinks at poles and move equator ward)
133
What is thermohaline circulation?
how salt and temperature keep the ocean moving (cold water sinks at poles and move equator ward)
134
What will happen to the future of UK seas?
- increase temperature (0.25/4 per decade)
- acidification
- deoxygenation
- increase sea levels
135
Climate change impacts on marine life
- groups can be sensitive to small temp changes
- species rely on calcification to build hard structures, decline pH cam affect this
- deoxygenation can create dead zones in the sea
- spewing and breeding times
136
How can climate change on marine systems impact humans?
- food production (fisheries)
- prevalence of harmful species (toxic algae blooms)
- flooding and storms
137
How does increase CO2 increase plant growth?
- more photosynthesis
- rubisco is more efficient at greater CO2
- less open stomata = greater water use efficiency
138
How does increase eCO2 affect ecosystems?
- forest will show greatest increases in. C sequestration
- nutrient limitation may affect growth
- increases in soil microbes increases competition in plants
139
What are the different ways to study climate change impact?
- past and current change
- site comparisons
- predict impacts of future change
139
What are the different ways to study climate change impact?
- past and current change
- site comparisons
- predict impacts of future change
140
Example of survey approach showing change in UK?
Plants and lichens +20%
Vertebrates +18%
Invertebrates -39%
141
What is happening to British taxonomic groups?
shifts to northern range margin (few places intact)
142
What is resistance and resilience?
resistance - ability of plant community to maintain composition and biomass
resilience - rate of recovery
143
What is Plant community composition?
Principle component analysis (PCA)
- plots closer together have similar composition
144
How do early successional communities respond compared to mature ones?
They are fast growing, short-lived species respond rapidly to climate change
145
How much of population is water a high level threat?
80%
146
What impact are land-use pressure having on species richness?
- Global 14% decrease in local species richness
- 31% loss in worst hit areas
- human dominated areas have largest declines
- mountain summits show increase richness (accelerated global warming)
147
Stages of polar amplification
1) snow/ice melt, darker land and ocean surface absorb more energy
2) more trapped energy goes directly to warming than evaporation
3) atmospheric layer which warms surface is lower in Artic
4) sea ice retreats solar heat absorbed by ocean more easier transferred to atmosphere (increase warming)
148
Facts about permafrost
- permanent frozen ground
- 24% of land in N hemisphere
- stores C as peat and methane
- 1300 Gt of C stored
149
What is happening to snow cover in Artic?
- snow cover loss fastest in spring
- extends growing season (2 weeks longer now than 1970s)
- this increases tundra ecosystem plant productuvity
150
What is Artic greening?
- snow free period increasing
- increase plant growth (more productive plants), shrubification
151
Ecological consequences of sea ice decline (artic warming 4x faster than rest of world)
Early ice retreat > alters timing go zooplankton and forage fish > less food for sea birds/mammals
Warmer artic > sub-artic birds more northward > Ince associated birds decline
Less ice > less haul out sites > population decline
152
What are the 2 types of N deposition?
Wet - in rain
Dry - as gas or aerosols
153
What are the 2 forms wet and dry deposition occur in?
Oxidised
Reduced
154
What factors affect N deposition?
Distance from source (more important for NHy)
Surface roughness (faster to rougher surfaces)
Rainfall (seeder-feeder effect)
155
Where are their high rates of N deposition?
- upland areas (seeder-feeder)
- industrial centres and agriculture
- forests (roughness)
156
4 mechanisms of N depositions as ecological threat
Eutrophication
Soil acidification
Secondary stress
Direct toxicity
157
4 mechanisms of N depositions as ecological threat
Eutrophication
Soil acidification
Secondary stress
Direct toxicity
158
Why is eutrophication bad?
fast growing N species outcompete others (death chalk grasslands)
159
How does N deposition affect soil chemistry?
decreases soil PH
increases soil ammonium and nitrate
160
How is N deposition an increasing global issue?
- estimated 2 fold greater in 2050 than 1990
- industrialisation of developing countries an issue
161
When is there peak N2O emissions?
- after fertilization
- after harvest and tillage
162
What 2 ways can mitigate emissions from livestock population?
Manure management methods (reduce CH4 and N2O emissions)
Enteric fermentation methods (reduce CH4 emissions)
163
What parts of the energy system are difficult to decarbonise?
- long distance road transport
- steel/cement production
- provision of a reliable electricity supply
163
What parts of the energy system are difficult to decarbonise?
- long distance road transport
- steel/cement production
- provision of a reliable electricity supply
164
What is net zero emissions?
reduce carbon of GHG emmisions to minimum, balance them by removing equal amount
165
What is net negative emissions?
remove more carbon than we emit
166
What is negative emissions technologies?
methods that remove GHG from the atmosphere
167
How does the Paris agreement plan to reduce emissions?
agree to limit warming <2C or ideally 1.5C
- limiting warming to to 2C would require reducing emissions by 20%
168
Net zero emissions in UK
- net zero emissions by 2050
- Climate change Act sets legally binding interim target for 5yr carbon budget periods
- while made progress emmisons projected to exceed legal emission caps
(energy white paper, transport decarbonation plan)
169
How can individuals reduce emissions?
- transport mode switching
- reduce excessive energy use
- material efficiency gains
(8% of emission reduction come from behavioural changes)
170
Geoengineering solution to climate change
- large scale intervention
- SRM, solar radiation management
- GGR, greenhouse gas removal
171
Techniques for solar radiation management
- aerosol injection (artificially introducing aerosol to atmosphere)
- ocean mirrors
- cloud thinning
- space sunshades
- marne cloud brightening (ships spray saltwater into clouds which reflect sunlight)
171
Give examples of carbon reservoirs
- forests
- grasslands
- agriculture land
- soils
172
4 benefits people obtain for ecosystems
Provisioning services (products)
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
172
4 benefits people obtain for ecosystems
Provisioning services (products)
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
173
What are land-based CDR strategies?
land use and management strategies that increase carbon stored in living plants or sediments
- coastal blue carbon
- peatland restoration
- afforestation
- enhanced rock weathering
174
By what 2 processes does CDR reduce GHG effect?
- intentional capture and removal of a GHG from the atmosphere
- storage of GHG that prevents it from returning for extended amount of time
175
What is carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)?
- technology captures CO2 from large point sources (chemical, biomass power, cement plants)
176
What are the 3 main capture technologies for carbon?
- post combustion
- pre combustion
- oxygen fuel combustion
177
What is direct air capture and carbon storage (DACCS)?
series of different technologies that use chemical bonding to remove atmospheric CO2 and store it
177
What is direct air capture and carbon storage (DACCS)?
series of different technologies that use chemical bonding to remove atmospheric CO2 and store it
178
What is bioenergy with carbon capture and sequestration (BECCS)?
2 mitigation options
- biomass combustion to generate energy (power, heat and liquid fuel), biomass includes energy crops and waste
- carbon capture and storage (CCS)
179
What is ocean fertilisation?
adding nutrients to increase magnitude of biological pump > removes carbon from surface (ocean absorbs more CO2)
- nutrients are nitrate, phosphate and iron
180
What is coastal blue carbon restoration?
- coastal wetlands store huge amounts of carbon
- restoring these could sequester up to 200MtCO2e/year
181
How does the international wetland restoration project plan to stabilise carbon?
100 million mangroves targeted to be planted by 2030, offset 96M tones of carbon to stabilise ecosystems (Hoveton)
182
What is soil carbon management?
Removing CO2 from atmosphere by changing land management practises (crop/nutrient/water management)
183
How can peatland restoration reduce emissions?
- covering peat areas with vegetation, returning waterlogged conditions
- costly for restoration but not for monitoring
- 70% of English peatlands are damaged
184
Benefits and challenges of tree planting
+ improve soil quality, reduce flooding/erosion, enhanced biodiversity
- competition for lad, use of water resources, affected by natural disturbances
185
Pros and cons of enhanced rock weathering
- increase crop production/ protection
- reverse soil acidification
- reduce N2O emissions
- mining and processing of rocks
- toxic metal contamination
- PH changes
185
Pros and cons of enhanced rock weathering
- increase crop production/ protection
- reverse soil acidification
- reduce N2O emissions
- mining and processing of rocks
- toxic metal contamination
- PH changes
186
What is biochar?
Produced during thermal decomposition of biomass in absences of oxygen (pyrolysis) into stable long lived product
- stored in soil for extended time (soil fertility and soil quality benefits)
challenges
- competition for land
- emmisons during pyrolysis
- changes in albedo
