Exam Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Charles Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
A
- New research reveals: Indian societies were bigger, older and more sophisticated than previously believed, and had greater impact on the environment
- Term old and new world are problematic, nothing new about latin america, there were many people there for many years before columbus.
2
Q
Americas in the Pre-Colonial Period
A
- Indigenous population in all of the Americas at time of conquest was around 100 million
- with about 2/5ths in North America vs. about 50 million in all of Western and Eastern Europe at the same time was about 50 million
- Primarily agricultural societies
- extremely sophisticated technologies of agriculture production to feed their populations
- people intensively farming on man made islands
3
Q
Aztec Empire (Mexica/ Triple Alliance) – early 1300s to 1521
A
- originated from Michica people, started spreading and conquering other tribes, highly centralized imperial militaritistic systems
4
Q
Mayan Empire – around 300 BC to 1300 AD
A
- in mostly guatemala parts of mexico and honduras
- extremely advanced civilization had declined by the time colonizers got there
- decline due to environmental factors, internal fighting etc no one really knows
5
Q
Common Factors among Indigenous Civilizations
A
- Political and economic diversity
- Mayan, Aztec and Incan empires: high degree of political hierarchy, centralized political systems
- aztecs and incans have divine centralised systems
- Communal land ownership
yass #marxist - Largely locally oriented production
- Reverence for the earth (Pachamama)
- Tributary systems transferred products from one area to another
- Staples: corn, potatoes, turkey, pumpkins, tomatoes, chocolate – no large domesticated animals
- Unfortunately for them, they didn’t develop iron or gunpowder
- Communal orientation indigenous resistance still feedstoday
6
Q
Iberian Society before the Conquest
A
Historical Precendents in Europe
- Trade with the Orient - cut off by rise of Ottoman empire
- Portuguese colonization of Western Africa and the Atlantic Islands the Reconquista
Political System in Iberian Peninsula at the time of the conquest
- feudalism
- centralized monarchy, despotic, authoritarian
Economic system: Mercantilism
- search for gold
- exploration in search of colonies
- plunder and conquest, not investment
- lack of a national bourgeoisie
- exported primary goods: wine, wool, iron ore, etc.
- influx of silver fueled inflation contraband
7
Q
Defeat of Indigenous Rulers
A
Less advanced military technology
Local rivalries
Demographic
disaster
Disease – “the great dying”
Malnutrition
Social disruption
8
Q
Colonial Period
A
a) Legal system – Laws of the Indies, Treaty of Tordesillas
b) Political System
- Political control by Council of the Indies in Spain and Viceroys in colonies
- Division between peninsulares and criollos
- Too much power delegated to local authorities
- Municipal councils represent interests of the colonial elites
- Peninsulares and Creoles were united against a common enemy: Indians
- Harmony of interests was undermined in the late 18th, early 19th centuries by the decline of Spain and Portugal
9
Q
Colonial effects of Mercantilism
A
Tight central control over the colonial economy by Spain – Crown received 1/5th (Quinto Real) plus high levels of taxation
Industrialization actively prevented
Only limited number of ports permitted to engage in commerce with Spain – led to contraband trade with British
Created pattern of dependency: economic progress dependent upon the demands of the metropolis.
Reliance upon one or two exports
10
Q
forced labour relations in the colonial period
A
i) slavery
ii) encomienda (trusteeship)
pretty much slavery but not called that
iii) repartimiento - after 1542
working for the land owner (not slaves) but required to take on debts that enslaved them
iv) some wage labour – but accompanied by debt peonage
v) control over sexuality of women
11
Q
Role of the Church in the Colonial Period
A
close ties between church and state
exploitation of Indians was legitimized
conversion of Indians (religious and secular reasons)
mitigated the effects of imperialism
Syncretism
major economic actor
12
Q
Main features of independent governments
A
frustrated dreams of Latin American unity (Bolívar)
civil wars 1810 to 1825
republican forms of government (except initially in Brazil), abolition of slavery
conservative nature of new regimes
basis laid for nation-building strategies
arrival of free trade ideology- economic, not political liberalism
Conflict between “liberals” and “conservatives”
13
Q
Rise of Liberalism (2nd half of 19th century)
A
Industrial Revolution in Europe - provision of agricultural and pastoral goods to feed industry in Europe
Political system
Integration into World Economy
Culture: civilization vs. barbarism
14
Q
Independence –sources of change
A
Events in Europe
- Bourbon reforms
- Napoleonic wars
- Enlightenment ideas (and revolutions in France and U.S.)
Internal causes
- Rising creole resentment
- Indigenous rebellions
- Extended revolutionary wars
15
Q
Modernization/Neo-Classical - emerged in 1950s (Theories of Development)
A
Prescribes using the process the West followed to development as a model
Focuses on cultural differences (influence of Max Weber, elective affinity between Protestantism and capitalism
Development is primarily endogenous and unilinear
How is transition from tradition to modernity accomplished? - positive Western influence: knowledge, skills, organization, values, technology, and especially capital are transmitted through cultural and economic diffusion
View of international system – benign
16
Q
Economic explanations of modernization theory
A
- “invisible hand” (Smith), laws of supply and demand
- Benefits of free trade - Absolute advantage - (Smith): the idea that a country doesn’t need to trade with another country if it can produce everything more cheaply than can its potential trading partner
vs. Comparative advantage (Ricardo): ability of a nation to produce a product or service at a lower opportunity cost than another product
Problems with modernization theory?
17
Q
B. Structuralism – big name: Raúl Prebisch, ECLA (Theories of development)
A
Historical analysis of the development of an international division of labour – saw development and underdevelopment as a single, connected process
division between an industrial center and an agrarian periphery – connected through processes of expropriation of surplus (Prebisch-Singer hypothesis)
theory of unequal exchange and declining terms of trade (Prebisch thesis) (see Figure 4 p. 185 Vanden, Prevost & Stahler-Sholk)
market is not unbiased, bias towards the interest of developed countries
18
Q
Import-Substituting Industrialization (ISI)
A
replace imports with making it for themselves
Active state intervention to support national industries, creation/promotion of national capitalist class
Finance directed at fledgling industries
Training, education in technical skills
High tariff levels for manufactured goods
Some nationalization of foreign corporations
Subsidies to national industries
agricultural sectors neglected
Imports of capital goods
debt-led growth
19
Q
Dependency theory (Theories of development)
A
Big names: André Gunder Frank, Theotonio dos Santos, Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto
Marxist analysis, inspired by Lenin’s theory of imperialism but critical of Communist Party
Historical form of analysis
Basic differences from Structuralism:
role of international economy
different view of dependency
different view of the political system and class analysis
solutions
Main Criticisms?
20
Q
Name 5 phases of economic development
A
answers in week 2 pp
21
Q
Oligarchy/Caudillismo
A
People that lead independence and set up their own form of power
Countries were very fragmented with local strong men that governed their region unchecked, no elections and no check on power
Nature of the military/leadership
personalistic form of military rule – strong dictators like Somoza (Nicaragua), Batista (Cuba), Stroessner (Paraguay), de Rosas (Argentina), Porfirio Diaz (Mexico), etc.
Context: “traditional” economic systems
External Factors
Role of U.S. in Central America/Caribbean
22
Q
De La Torre definition of populism
A
“ I define populism as a strategy to get to power and to govern based on the democratizing demand to return power to its original owners: “the people”
23
Q
populism : Julio Carrión: - four constitutive elements:
A
(1) a style of leadership that is highly personalistic;
(2) an unmediated or poorly institutionalized leader/mass relationship that privileges mechanisms of direct democracy rather than representative democracy;
(3) a political discourse or mentality that divides the world between “us” and “them”; and
(4) a general distrust of institutional checks and balances that would limit the power of the leader.
24
Q
Military Dictatorships (1960s-1970s)
A
Bureaucratic Authoritarianism:
Policy decisions made by high-ranking officers and technocrats
Characteristics (Guillermo O’Donnell):
Comprehensive control of society
Repressive
Bureaucratic and technocratic
Closely linked to international capital
External Factors:
Cold War context
U.S. influence through military training and technology transfers
School of the Americas
25
Country-Specific Cases: Argentina (1966-1983):
"Dirty War" (1976-1983): 10,000-20,000 "disappeared"
Challenges:
Rising criticism of human rights abuses
Economic decline: $43 billion foreign debt (1982), shrinking economy
Falkland/Malvinas War (1982)
26
Country-Specific Cases:Brazil (1964-1985):
Rapid economic growth: "Brazilian Miracle" (1968-1974)
Military allied with foreign multinational corporations
27
Country specific Cases: Chile (1973-1988):
Coup d'état (1973): Overthrow of Salvador Allende
Pinochet dictatorship:
Human rights violations
Neoliberal policies led by "Chicago Boys"
Constitution of 1980 designed for transition to democracy
Lost 1988 plebiscite
28
Defining Democracy
General Definition: Government by which people exercise sovereignty.
Key Characteristics:
Free and fair elections with opposition and alternation of power.
Rule of law and constitutional mechanisms for election legitimacy.
Freedom of speech and access to alternative information.
Checks and balances on power.
Civilian governance and secularism.
Representation and protection of social, economic, and cultural rights.
29
Minimalist Definitions of Democracy
Joseph Schumpeter: Democracy is a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.
Robert Dahl (1971): "Polyarchy" with seven components:
Elected officials.
Free and fair elections.
Inclusive suffrage.
Right to run for public office.
Freedom of expression.
Availability of alternative information.
Associational autonomy.
30
Maximalist Definitions of Democracy
Holmes and Piñeres: Democratic development includes:
Democratic inclusiveness (e.g., representation of minorities).
Health of democracy (e.g., corruption levels, political rights).
Human capital (e.g., education quality).
Economic/political security.
Terry Lynn Karl: Democracy involves:
Contestation and competition for office.
Citizen participation through collective action.
Accountability through rule of law and civilian control over the military.
Democracy as a spectrum rather than a dichotomy.
31
Causes of Democratization in the 1980s
Modernization Theory:
Economic development leads to democratization (Lipset, 1959).
Discredited by military coups in the 1960s/70s.
Economic and Political Explanations:
Economic crisis from debt and neoliberal Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs).
Rise of social movements (e.g., Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo).
External Factors:
Pressure from NGOs and international organizations.
Decline of Cold War-era authoritarianism.
Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001).
32
Democratic Consolidation
Consolidation occurs when democracy becomes stable, but Latin American democracies remain fragile and incomplete (Lowenthal & Domínguez):
Issues with participation and representation.
Accountability challenges.
Inequality and economic constraints.
Weak political culture, parties, and civil society.
33
Democratic Backsliding in Latin America
Challenges:
Clientelism.
Weak parties and civil society.
Human rights violations and threats to activists.
Tests to Democracy:
Venezuela (2002, 2016).
Haiti (2004).
Mexico (2006).
Honduras (2009).
Brazil (2016).
Causes of Decline in Support:
Economic cycle and poor government performance.
Rise in populist and authoritarian attitudes.
Perception of political elites as ineffective.
34
Case Study: Venezuela Democratic Backsliding
Timeline:
1958-1989: Punto Fijo government with alternating parties.
1975: Nationalization of oil.
1989: Caracazo protests and military repression.
1998: Hugo Chávez elected; adopts pro-poor policies.
2002: Failed coup attempt.
2006: Declares "21st-century socialism."
2013: Chávez dies; Nicolás Maduro assumes presidency.
2019: Opposition declares Juan Guaidó interim president; contested elections.
2024: Maduro wins presidential election amid controversy.
35
What is neoliberalism in political economy?
A school of thought advocating for market forces over state intervention, based on Adam Smith’s principle of the "invisible hand."
36
Which economists are associated with the intellectual origins of neoliberalism?
Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman.
37
What is stagflation?
A combination of stagnant growth, low employment rates, and high inflation.
38
What role did the "Chicago Boys" play in Chile's neoliberal policies?
Chilean economists trained in Chicago implemented neoliberal policies under the military dictatorship to address inflation and protectionism.
39
What caused the Latin American debt crisis in 1982?
Rising debt, super high inflation, and declining export income, exacerbated by banks lending petrodollars from increased oil prices.
40
How did the US and UK respond to economic crises in the 1980s?
They adopted neoliberal monetarism under leaders like Reagan and Thatcher, with policies like the Volcker shock raising interest rates to 20%.
41
What is the Washington Consensus?
Policies developed by Washington-based institutions to address the debt crisis, emphasizing austerity, privatization, and trade liberalization.
42
What were key elements of first-generation Structural Adjustment Programs?
Fiscal discipline and privatization.
Elimination of subsidies for food and utilities.
Trade liberalization and competitive exchange rates.
Financial deregulation and promotion of foreign investment.
43
How did SAPs affect poverty levels in Latin America?
Poverty increased from 26.5% (1980) to 31% (1989).
By the late 1980s, 40 million more people were in poverty.
44
What characterized second-generation reforms?
Targeted social programs (e.g., Progresa/Bolsa Familia).
Legal reform for private property.
Labor flexibilization and "good governance."
Decentralization and free trade agreements.
45
How did neoliberal reforms impact education and the economy?
Undermining education negatively affected economic development, and poverty levels rose significantly.
46
What was the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and its significance?
The Monroe Doctrine stated that the American continents were no longer open to European colonization, asserting U.S. authority over the Western Hemisphere.
47
How did Britain influence Latin America in the post-independence period (1820s-1850s)?
Britain was the dominant foreign power during this period, exercising significant economic influence.
48
What were key territorial expansions of the U.S. in the 19th century?
1836: Texas declared independence from Mexico.
1845: Texas annexed by the U.S.
1846-1848: Mexican-American War.
1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded vast territories to the U.S
49
What were filibusters, and how did they reflect U.S. attitudes?
Filibusters were private mercenaries inspired by Manifest Destiny, raiding lands in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. They symbolized U.S. expansionist ideology.
50
What marked the rise of U.S. influence in Latin America between 1880 and World War I?
1898: Spanish-American War and military occupation of Cuba.
1901: Platt Amendment gave the U.S. control over Cuba.
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine justified U.S. interventions.
Heavy U.S. investments in Central America, particularly through companies like United Fruit.
51
What were "banana republics"?
Central American countries dominated by U.S. corporations like United Fruit, characterized by economic dependence, semi-slavery conditions, and U.S.-backed authoritarian regimes.
52
How did Latin America respond to U.S. intervention?
Through doctrines like the Calvo Doctrine (1868) and the Drago Doctrine (1902), revolutions (e.g., Mexican Revolution, Sandinista rebellion), and asserting sovereignty in domestic affairs.
53
What was the Good Neighbor Policy (1933-1945)?
A U.S. policy under President Franklin D. Roosevelt that recognized legal equality between nations and sought alliances or neutrality during World War II.
54
How did the Cold War shape U.S. involvement in Latin America?
1947: Rio Pact legitimized intervention against communism.
1948: Creation of the Organization of American States (OAS).
1954: CIA-backed overthrow of Guatemala’s government.
Support for military dictatorships and counter-insurgency programs
55
What was the significance of the Cuban Revolution (1959) in U.S.-Latin America relations?
Sparked U.S. fears of communist expansion.
Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) and Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).
Led to Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress to counter revolution through economic aid and reforms
56
What were the Reagan Doctrine and its impacts in the 1980s?
The Reagan Doctrine justified U.S. interventions in Central America to combat perceived communist threats, leading to significant military support, over 100,000 deaths, and widespread opposition.
57
How did U.S. policy change after the Cold War?
Shift from military interventions to neoliberal economic policies.
Regional integration initiatives like ALBA and MERCOSUR marginalized U.S. influence.
Support for Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).
58
What are remaining sources of conflict between the U.S. and Latin America?
Cuba sanctions.
War on drugs and militarization of Central America.
Immigration issues.
Role of Venezuela and China.
59
Why did Latin America shift left in the late 1990s/early 2000s
The shift is often traced to Hugo Chávez’s electoral victory in Venezuela, which inspired a wave of left-wing electoral victories in other Latin American countries
60
What was the pink tide
The "Pink Tide" refers to the rise of left-wing governments across Latin America in the late 1990s and early 2000s, rejecting neoliberal economic policies
61
What is post neoliberalism
A vague concept that differs across countries, referring to a rejection of neoliberal policies and the rise of left-wing governments with varied economic and social policies
62
What are some factors that contributed to the rise of the New Left in Latin America?
Failure of the Washington Consensus
Crises in the global economy
Civil society pressure (e.g., "Caracazo" in Venezuela)
Fall-out from democratization
Ideological changes in the Latin American Left
Rise of the BRICs
High commodity prices
Persistence of structuralist theory
Decline in US hegemony
63
What were some of the policies associated with Post-Neoliberalism in Latin America?
Rejection of neoliberal doctrines, such as privatization and austerity
Advocacy for state intervention in the economy
Nationalization of key sectors (e.g., energy, minerals)
Social policies like Bolsa Família in Brazil
Participatory democracy initiatives
64
What are some continuities between Post-Neoliberalism and Neoliberalism
"Sound macroeconomic policies" (low debt, low inflation)
Market-based resource allocation
Lack of progressive taxation or land redistribution
Neo-extractivism and deindustrialization
65
What are some discontinuities between Post-Neoliberalism and Neoliberalism
Advocacy for state intervention and renationalization of industries
Increased social rights and policies
Participatory democracy
66
What are some reasons for the partial return of the right in Latin America?
Decline in commodity prices
Weak institutions and corruption
Persistence of traditional elites
Continued integration into the global economy
Ongoing crime and violence
67
What was the role of civil society in the rise of the New Left
Civil society movements, such as protests against neoliberal policies and economic crises, played a crucial role in demanding change and supporting left-wing candidates.
68
: Who is AMLO
Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) is the current president of Mexico (2018–2024), leader of the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), and former mayor of Mexico City
69
What is AMLO’s background
Born in Tabasco, 1953
Studied political science at UNAM
Former member of the PRI, later founded the left-wing PRD
Long political career with a focus on anti-corruption and social justice
70
How did AMLO come to power in 2018?
Disastrous record of outgoing PRI president Enrique Peña Nieto (violence, corruption, economic decline)
Strong campaign by AMLO, leveraging civil society support and social media
AMLO’s reputation as not personally corrupt
71
What were AMLO's key promises during his campaign
Reduce crime and violence with programs like the Guardia Nacional
Improve macroeconomic performance and reduce poverty
Attack corruption
Nationalize strategic sectors like energy and lithium
Build infrastructure projects like the Mayan Train ("Tren Maya")
Increase minimum wage and labor reform
72
What were AMLO’s main social programs
Jóvenes Construyendo el Futuro (youth employment program)
Becas Benito Juárez (scholarships for students)
Pensión Adultos Mayores (universal pension for seniors 68+)
73
What was AMLO’s approach to tackling crime and violence
"Abrazos no balas" (hugs, not bullets) approach, focusing on social programs to reduce violence
Amnesty to non-violent criminals
Creation of the Guardia Nacional (National Guard)
74
What were some controversial policies under AMLO?
Judicial reform, particularly changes to how judges are elected
Closing daycare centers
Controversies surrounding health policies and the pandemic response
75
What is Claudia Sheinbaum's background
Former mayor of Mexico City (2018–2024)
Close ally of AMLO
First woman and Jewish president-elect of Mexico
PhD in electrical engineering
76
What political party did AMLO lead to victory in 2018
MORENA (National Regeneration Movement), a left-wing political party AMLO helped formalize in 2014 after breaking with the PRD
77
What is a revolution
[R]evolutions differ from other kinds of disorders and social change. Peasant revolts, grain riots, strikes, social movements, coups, and civil wars can all arise in the course of revolutions and are important constituent elements of revolutionary struggles.
Revolutions are distinct from these because they combine all the elements of forcible overthrow of the government, mass mobilization, the pursuit of a vision of social justice, and the creation of new political institutions. It is this combination that leads us to conceive of revolutions as the process by which visionary leaders draw on the power of the masses to forcibly bring into existence a new political order” (Jack Goldstone, 2013)
78
Why do revolutions happen
Older theories:
Marxist theories – can’t achieve change without revolution
Conservatives “theories”
Big bang theories
New theoretical approaches – emphasize their rarity, difficulty, historic specificity
Combination of opportunity (allies, resources)
Subjective elements (leadership, ideology, framing processes)
Importance of the state (Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China, 1979)
Tactics: guerrilla warfare
Role of international system
79
What were the prerevolution conditions of the Cuban revolution (1959)
History of foreign intervention (Spain then US)
Agro-export economy
Workers are completely dependant on and exploited by the landowners
Formerly enslaved and afro descendant workers, racial divide is very strong
Inequality in rural areas
US support for corrupt dictator (Fulgencio Batista)
Lack of democratic institutions,
Weakness of Catholic church
Strong US support for unpopular dictator
Nationalist ideology, getting the foreign imperialist powers out
80
What were the strategies for success in the Cuban revolution
Castro strategy: Foquismo (guerrilla warfare led by small vanguard)
Lack of legitimacy of Batista regime and eventual collapse
Gradual shift of Castro regime toward alignment with USSR
Cold War context
Coherent Marxist-Leninist doctrine
81
What is the role of civil society in revolutions
Realm of associational activity located between the market and formal political institutions of the state
Jan Aart Scholte: civil society actors “deliberately seek to shape the rules that govern one or the other aspects of social life
82
Changes in the Latin American left – from Revolution to Civil Society
Democratization in 1980s
Fall of the USSR, negative aspects of Cuban and Nicaraguan experiences
Disenchantment with Marxist theories – incorporation of concerns with democracy, human rights, women’s rights, Indigenous rights etc.
Impact of neoliberal reforms of 1980s -
In many cases, rejection of traditional political parties
Globalization, communications technologies, urbanization, education
83
New social movements – 1980s - present
More horizontal styles of leadership (promotion of more democratic forms of organization) and peaceful forms of protest
Protest often involves occupation of public space
Born from resistance to neoliberal globalization in 1980s and 1990s – grassroots responses
Also response to growth of urban informal sector
Majority of members often women
Examples: urban popular movements, environmental, Indigenous, feminist, LGBTQ movements
New social movement theory e.g. Sidney Tarrow, “political opportunity structure” (1994, Power in Movement)– e.g. splits in elites, availability of allies, resources, common interests, leadership
84
Cochabamba water wars (Bolivia December 1999 - April 2000)
Historic uneven access to water resources in Bolivia
1985 - Structural Adjustment Program imposed on Bolivia
1989 – threat to privatize state-owned water agency, SEMARPA
2000 – “water war” with urban residents fighting against state military and police to protest the privatization
Use of social media and transnational alliances – World Social Forum, emergence of anti-globalization movement
Defeated the initiative
Alliance with Indigenous groups and peasantry eventually led to “Pink Tide” government of Evo Morales
85
What is the definition of gender in a social context?
Gender refers to the ideological and material relations between men and women as constructed socially. It is not biologically given but shaped by cultural and social practices.
86
How did colonialism impact indigenous gender ideologies?
Colonialism imposed European gender norms on indigenous populations, disregarding concepts like "two-spirit" people and the fluidity of gender, labeling them as barbaric.
87
What is "machismo" in Latin American gender ideologies?
Machismo is the cult of virility, often associated with aggression, arrogance, and sexual permissiveness, reflecting traditional masculine ideals.
88
What is "marianismo" in Latin American gender ideologies?
Marianismo is the glorification of women's traditional roles, emphasizing moral superiority and spiritual strength, often linked to the idealization of motherhood and female purity.
89
What significant progress has been made regarding gender and social indicators in Latin America?
Progress includes improved education for girls, a decline in fertility rates, women’s increasing entry into the labor force, a narrowing gender wage gap, and more women in politics.
90
What are some remaining gender-related problems in Latin America?
Issues include female-headed households being poorer than male-headed ones, a 13% wage gap in urban areas, indigenous women facing the most disadvantage, and continued high levels of violence and feminicides.
91
What was the focus of the first wave of women’s/feminist movements in Latin America?
: The first wave focused on suffrage campaigns, primarily led by upper and middle-class women, seeking the right to vote.
92
What did the second wave of women’s/feminist movements in Latin America entail?
he second wave emerged in the 1970s and 1980s during democratization, focusing on human rights campaigns (e.g., Las Madres de la Plaza de Mayo) and alliances between middle-class feminists and working-class women.
93
How did the third wave of women’s/feminist movements emerge in Latin America?
The third wave emerged with an emphasis on women’s involvement in democracy struggles and new forms of activism, such as socio-environmental movements and labor activism in maquilas (export processing zones).
94
How did quotas for women in politics emerge in Latin America
The introduction of quotas aimed at increasing female political representation, with Argentina pioneering the Quota Law in 1991. 16 countries now have quota requirements to ensure women’s representation in legislatures.
95
What are the three types of quotas for women in politics in Latin America?
Reserved seats (constitutional or legislative)
Legal candidate quotas (constitutional or legislative)
Political party quotas (voluntary)
96
How do Latin American women’s quotas impact public opinion?
Opinion polls show high support for quotas, with 57% agreeing that quotas improve government, 66% believing women are more honest than men, and 85% saying women make better decision-makers.
97
Can you name some female presidents in Latin America?
Violeta Chamorro (Nicaragua)
Mireya Moscoso (Panama)
Michelle Bachelet (Chile)
Cristina Fernández (Argentina)
Laura Chinchilla (Costa Rica)
Dilma Rousseff (Brazil)
Jeanine Áñez (Bolivia)
Xiomara Castro (Honduras)
Claudia Sheinbaum (Mexico)
98
What new forms of activism emerged in Latin America in the 2000s?
Activism in the 2000s included socio-environmental movements, workers in maquilas, and campaigns like #Niunamenos, which protests against misogyny, femicide, and violence against women.
99
What is the definition of "femicide"?
Femicide is the intentional murder of women because of their gender, often reflecting a broader culture of misogyny and gender-based violence.
100
What are some recent reforms related to gender and sexuality in Latin America?
Legalization of same-sex marriage in various countries (e.g., Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia) and court battles for social benefits and recognition of rights related to sexual expression and gender identity.
101
What factors have contributed to changes in attitudes toward gender and sexuality in Latin America?
Key factors include the impact of the AIDS crisis, rise of LGBT social movements, democratization, anti-discrimination laws, the decline of Catholic Church influence, and the rise of Evangelical movements.
102
How did LGBT movements and human rights intersect in Latin America?
LGBT movements often linked their struggles to broader human rights movements, using legal channels, including courts, to fight for recognition and equality.
103
How has the concept of race evolved in Latin America?
The concept of race has shifted from being seen as biologically determined to being understood as a social construct through the process of "racialization," which involves complex, often unconscious, systemic processes of assigning racial categories.
104
What is "racialization" in the context of race and ethnicity?
Racialization is the process by which groups are categorized as belonging to a particular "race," leading to differential and unequal treatment. It emphasizes the ideological and systemic aspects of race, and how racial categories are socially constructed but have real consequences.
105
What is "mestizaje" in Latin America?
Mestizaje refers to ethnic and racial mixing, where both race and ethnicity are fluid and can shift over time, forming a spectrum of racial categories. Racism and mestizaje coexist and interact in the region.
106
How is ethnicity defined in the context of Latin America?Ethnicity is traditionally seen as linked to culture rather than biology. It refers to groups that share common ancestry, language, customs, and memories of migration or colonization. It often overlaps with the concept of a nation.
107
How was indigeneity viewed in Latin America traditionally?
Indigeneity was traditionally viewed as an ethnicity rather than a racial category, associated with indigenous groups who share common cultural and ancestral ties
107
What was the myth regarding the treatment of African slaves in Latin America compared to the Southern United States?
There was a myth that African slaves were treated better in Latin America than in the U.S. South, but this was untrue. Slavery in Latin America was brutal, with the majority of slaves brought to the Caribbean and Brazil to work in sugar production.
107
What role did Brazil play in the transatlantic slave trade?
Brazil was the largest recipient of African slaves, with 60-70% of the 10-16 million enslaved Africans surviving the transatlantic journey. Most were brought to work in sugar economies.
108
How did the Catholic Church in Latin America impact the lives of slaves?
The Catholic Church insisted that slaves had the right to marry, buy their freedom, and accumulate wealth, which contributed to the formation of a mixed-race society in Latin America.
109
What were Quilombos in Brazil?
Quilombos were settlements of escaped slaves in Brazil, the largest of which was Palmares. These communities maintained African cultural practices, including religion, food, and capoeira (a war dance).
110
What happened to the category of "indio" in the postcolonial period?
The category of "indio" faded away in the postcolonial period as liberalism and independence challenged the colonial system. Indigenous status had been tied to geographic location in reserves, but this system broke down with the advent of independence.
111
What is meant by the idea of a "cosmic race" in Latin America?
The "cosmic race" idea posits that Latin Americans, due to their mixed-race heritage, represent a morally superior race combining the best aspects of indigenous and European cultures. Critics argue that this idealized the past but failed to fully recognize or embrace present-day indigenous peoples.
112
What is the concept of Brazilian "racial democracy"?
The idea of Brazilian "racial democracy" suggests that Brazilians do not see race and treat everyone equally, despite the underlying social and economic inequalities based on race.
113
What factors contributed to the rise of Indigenous and Afro-descendant movements in Latin America?
Factors include the decline of corporatism, the weakening influence of Marxism, the impact of democratization and neoliberalism, and human rights struggles. Transnational ideas and international law, such as the UN Declaration on Indigenous Rights, also played a role in these movements.
114
What new forms of mobilization and representation have emerged for Indigenous and Afro-descendant groups?
New forms of mobilization include grassroots movements, alliances with post-neoliberal governments, and the gradual extension of rights for Indigenous and Afro-descendant peoples, such as the idea of plurinationalism.
115
What conflicts exist between Indigenous movements and governments in Latin America?
Conflicts often arise over the expansion of extractivism (resource extraction) in remote regions, which threatens the rights and territories of Indigenous communities, despite advances in recognizing their rights.
116
How does Latin America compare to the rest of the world in terms of violence?
Latin America is the most violent region in the world, accounting for 37% of global homicides despite having only 13% of the world's population.
117
What demographic is most affected by homicide in Latin America?
Men, particularly young men aged 15-29, are disproportionately affected. In Latin America and the Caribbean, 91% of homicide victims are male, compared to a global average of 81%.
118
What is the estimated cost of violence in Latin America?
Violence costs between 2% and 15% of the region's cumulative GDP.
119
What are some key reasons for high levels of violence in Latin America?
Lingering effects of civil conflicts (e.g., in Central America, Colombia)
Problems with transitions to democracy
Neoliberal reforms
History of impunity and weak rule of law
Economic diversification of cartels
120
What did the World Bank study find about homicide rates in Latin America?
Homicide rates have risen since the 1990s, especially in drug-producing or trafficking countries. Rates are higher in middle-income countries, those with greater income inequality, and democracies.
121
What countries in Latin America have lower youth homicide rates?
Cuba, Chile, and Uruguay have youth murder rates around 7 per 100,000.
122
How has U.S. policy influenced violence in Latin America?
Repatriation of gang members from the U.S. to countries like El Salvador and Jamaica spread transnational gang ties.
The U.S. market for drugs and smuggling of weapons contribute to violence.
U.S.-backed policies like mano dura (iron fist) and kingpin strategies have been criticized for their limited effectiveness.
123
What is citizen security, and how does it differ from traditional crime control?
Citizen security focuses on reducing violence holistically, including physical, psychological, and sexual violence. It emphasizes public safety and community well-being, not just police control and deterrence.
124
How has El Salvador addressed gang violence?
A 2012 truce was brokered by the Catholic Church between major gangs.
President Nayib Bukele's mano dura policies have significantly reduced murder rates.
125
What steps have some Latin American countries taken toward drug policy reform?
Uruguay has led efforts in marijuana legalization as an alternative to the "war on drugs."
126
What alternative approaches have been proposed to address violence?
Focus on domestic violence prevention
Institutional strengthening
Citizen security programs
Youth-at-risk interventions
127
What successful strategies were implemented in Bogotá to reduce violence?
Surveillance systems
Urban redesign
Alcohol sale control
Voluntary disarmament campaigns
Citizen culture programs
