Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Define the divisions of anthropology.
A
The divisions of anthropology are Cultural, Social, and Physical anthropology.
2
Q
Describe anthropology.
A
Anthropology is the study of origin, behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development of people within communities.
3
Q
Explain cultural anthropology and its divisions.
A
Cultural anthropology is the study of human cultures, both past and present. Its divisions include Cultural, Linguistics, and Physical anthropology.
4
Q
What is culture?
A
Culture is a system of ideas, values, virtues, behaviors, and attitudes of a society, shaped and transmitted through generations.
5
Q
How does culture influence daily life?
A
Culture affects every aspect of one’s daily life and heavily influences one’s worldview.
6
Q
Define ethnocentrism.
A
Ethnocentrism is the act of evaluating other people’s culture by the standards of one’s own, leading to bias.
7
Q
What are informants in anthropology?
A
Informants are individuals within a culture who are knowledgeable and can provide information about their community to an ethnologist.
8
Q
Describe the types of interviews used by anthropologists.
A
Anthropologists use unstructured, semi-structured, and structured interviews to gather information.
9
Q
What is an unstructured interview?
A
An unstructured interview allows the interviewer to gain a variety of information without pre-established questions.
10
Q
Explain a semi-structured interview.
A
A semi-structured interview involves prepared questions but allows flexibility in the responder’s answers.
11
Q
What characterizes a structured interview?
A
A structured interview has a set list of questions, and the respondent provides clear answers, typically yes or no.
12
Q
What methods do anthropologists use besides interviews?
A
Anthropologists count people, map physical locations, take photos, and view diagrams to understand the culture being studied.
13
Q
Define ethnology.
A
Ethnology is the study of humans as cultural beings and how culture affects humans.
14
Q
What do ethnologists study?
A
Ethnologists study the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them through participant observations.
15
Q
Explain participant observation in anthropology.
A
Participant observation is a research method where an anthropologist lives with a group to observe and take notes about their culture.
16
Q
Differentiate between subjective and objective research.
A
Subjective research is based on facts and data without personal bias, while objective research is influenced by the researcher’s own bias and cultural norms.
17
Q
What challenges are associated with participant observation?
A
Challenges include potential bias in the researcher’s observations and the risk of exaggeration or incorrect accounts of the culture.
18
Q
Describe cultural relativism.
A
Cultural relativism is the theory that an anthropologist cannot compare two cultures, as each culture is unique with its own internal rules and practices.
19
Q
Describe Functional Theory in the context of culture.
A
Functional Theory posits that aspects of a culture exist to serve a purpose for the people within that culture, ensuring preservation and continuation of practices as long as they meet the people’s needs.
20
Q
Explain Cultural Materialism and its significance.
A
Cultural Materialism suggests that a culture’s location influences its development, with the environment impacting ideologies and practices necessary for the community’s long-term survival.
21
Q
Define linguistic anthropology.
A
Linguistic anthropology is the study of the history and structure of languages, focusing on how humans use language.
22
Q
Identify the three types of linguistic anthropology and provide a brief explanation of each.
A
- Historical Linguistics: Studies language structures to understand relationships and immigration patterns. 2. Structured Linguistics: Examines the basic structures shared by all languages, such as grammar. 3. Sociolinguistics: Investigates how language is used within cultures, including variations in speech based on social context.
23
Q
How does the Sapir-Whorf theory relate language to thought?
A
The Sapir-Whorf theory posits that the language a person speaks influences their thinking and worldview, exemplified by different interpretations of the same event based on language structure.
24
Q
What is archaeology and its primary focus?
A
Archaeology is the study of past cultures to gain insights into both historical and contemporary societies.
25
Describe the methods used by archaeologists to gather information.
Archaeologists use tools to find and excavate human remains and artifacts, which help them make inferences about past cultures.
26
What is prehistoric archaeology?
Prehistoric archaeology studies cultures that existed before written records, requiring archaeologists to make educated guesses about those societies.
27
Explain how archaeology contributes to understanding written history.
Archaeology provides context about life during historical periods, including insights into politics, customs, and beliefs.
28
Define physical anthropology and its focus areas.
Physical anthropology is the study of human origins, evolution, and the unique characteristics that define humans.
29
What are the three branches of physical anthropology?
The three branches are primatology, forensic anthropology, and archaeology.
30
What is paleoanthropology?
Paleoanthropology is the study of ancient human ancestors through the examination of bones and stones.
31
What types of evidence do paleoanthropologists use in their studies?
Paleoanthropologists primarily use bones and stones as evidence to learn about ancient human ancestors.
32
What can anthropologists learn from ancient bones?
Anthropologists can learn about ancient living conditions, burial rituals, and social dynamics from ancient bones.
33
Define primatology and its significance in anthropology.
Primatology is the study of primates, focusing on their anatomy and behavior to draw comparisons with humans, which aids in understanding human evolution.
34
Why is studying primates important for physical anthropologists?
Studying primates is crucial for physical anthropologists as it provides insights into human evolution and behavior.
35
List some differences and similarities between humans and other primates.
Differences: 1. Bipedalism, 2. Symbolic language, 3. Pair mating, 4. Creation of guiding beliefs. Similarities: 1. Large brains, 2. Strong mother-infant bonds, 3. Dominance hierarchies.
36
What is bipedalism and its importance in human evolution?
Bipedalism is the ability to walk on two legs, marking a significant evolutionary step when humans transitioned from tree climbing.
37
Define rites of passage and their purpose.
Rites of passage are significant life events that mark changes in an individual's life or social status.
38
What are some common rites of passage in Western cultures?
Common rites of passage in Western cultures include obtaining a driver's license, voting, drinking alcohol, graduating high school, and retirement.
39
Describe the three stages of rites of passage.
1. Segregation – separation from old status/society. 2. Transition – process of becoming the new status. 3. Incorporation + Reintegration – society recognizes new social status.
40
Explain the differences between male and female rites of passage.
During the birth rite of passage, baby boys may be circumcised while girls typically get their ears pierced. These differences arise from distinct bodily changes experienced by men and women.
41
How do anthropologists view the concept of adolescence?
Anthropologists believe adolescence exists due to distinct physical and psychological changes that occur during puberty, marking the transition from childhood to young adulthood.
42
Define the difference between sex and gender according to anthropologists.
Sex is genetically defined (XX or XY chromosomes), while gender is culturally defined by the roles, expectations, images, and symbols associated with men and women.
43
How does culture influence the social construction of gender?
Culture determines interpretations of biological differences through clothing styles, symbols (like pink for girls and blue for boys), acceptable behaviors, and the relative values assigned to genders.
44
What are some behaviors that are typically associated with men in Canadian culture?
Men are often viewed as handy, tradespeople, and dominate fields such as business and STEM.
45
What is the anthropological definition of religion?
Religion is a system of beliefs that helps people make sense of the world, understand their place in it, and provides moral guidance.
46
What roles are commonly associated with women in Canadian culture?
Women are typically viewed as nurturing, responsible for cooking and cleaning, and often dominate fields such as arts and teaching.
47
List the three main functions that religion serves in human society.
1. Helps people make sense of the world. 2. Helps people understand their place in it and others. 3. Provides moral guidance.
48
What do psychologists study?
Psychologists study human behavior, mental processes, and the underlying factors that influence them.
49
Define psychodynamic theory.
Psychodynamic theory is based on the belief that unlocking the unconscious mind is key to understanding human behavior and relationships.
50
What is Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory posits that all human behavior is influenced by early childhood experiences, which shape the unconscious mind throughout life.
51
Define unconscious/subconscious according to Freud and Jung.
Unconscious/subconscious refers to a lack of awareness; Freud viewed it as a repository for repressed sexual/aggressive urges, while Jung saw it as a repository of ancestral thought forms or archetypes.
52
What does conscious mean in psychological terms?
Conscious refers to an awareness of internal and external stimuli.
53
Identify and describe the three parts of human consciousness according to Freud.
1. ID – the instinctual part of the mind operating on the pleasure principle. 2. Ego – the rational part of the mind operating on the reality principle, suppressing ID urges. 3. Superego – the moral center of the mind, acting as the conscience.
54
Explain Freud’s iceberg analogy of the mind.
Freud's iceberg analogy illustrates that the conscious mind is above water, while the unconscious mind (ID) is below the surface. The ego and superego straddle both sides, operating in both conscious and unconscious realms.
55
What are defense mechanisms according to Freud?
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies used by the ego to distort reality and manage anxiety.
56
Describe the defense mechanism of denial.
Denial is the refusal to acknowledge the conflict within one’s conscience.
57
What is displacement as a defense mechanism?
Displacement involves treating others unfairly or rudely due to past unjust treatment, redirecting frustration from mental conflict.
58
Describe projection in psychology.
Projection is the act of attributing one's own negative feelings or thoughts onto others, reflecting how someone perceives themselves.
59
Explain repression as a psychological concept.
Repression involves holding onto feelings of mental conflict by pushing them down to be forgotten, often leading to unresolved emotional issues.
60
Define personality in psychological terms.
Personality refers to the characteristic behaviors and conscious motives that define an individual.
61
Identify the main personality theories.
The main personality theories include Eysenck's personality dimensions and the OCEAN model, which describe personality traits.
62
What are Eysenck's personality dimensions?
Eysenck's personality dimensions are based on three factors: psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism, suggesting that personality is influenced by genetics.
63
Compare Eysenck's dimensions to the OCEAN model.
Eysenck's model has three dimensions, while the OCEAN model includes five traits, providing a broader understanding of personality.
64
List the Big 5 Factors of personality.
The Big 5 Factors are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
65
How do interests, careers, and relationships affect personality?
Interests, careers, and relationships can lead to changes in personality by influencing behaviors, attitudes, and self-perception.
66
What influences behavior according to psychological theories?
Behavior is influenced by motivation, attitudes, and social thinking, which shape how individuals act and react.
67
Define self-concept in psychology.
Self-concept is an individual's perception of their unique attributes and traits.
68
Describe the three stages of self-concept development.
The three stages of self-concept development are self-differentiation, self-recognition, and the present and extended self.
69
What is egocentrism in psychological terms?
Egocentrism is the inability to perceive or understand someone else's point of view.
70
Explain the basis of behavioral psychology.
Behavioral psychology is based on the belief that empirical evidence is necessary to understand and change behavior, focusing on observable actions.
71
What is classical conditioning according to Ivan Pavlov?
Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.
72
Describe Pavlov's experiment with dogs using key terms.
In Pavlov's experiment, the dog salivated (unconditioned response) to food (unconditioned stimulus). The bell (neutral stimulus) became a conditioned stimulus when paired with food, leading to salivation (conditioned response) at the sound of the bell.
73
Provide a personal example of classical conditioning.
Hearing Christmas music (neutral stimulus) triggers memories of joy and the holidays (unconditioned stimulus), leading to a desire to shop (conditioned response) when I hear the music in the mall.
74
Define operant conditioning as described by B.F. Skinner.
Operant conditioning involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior, where reinforcement increases the behavior and punishment decreases it.
75
Explain B.F. Skinner's 'Skinner box' experiment.
Skinner's 'Skinner box' was an operant conditioning chamber where rats learned to push a lever to receive food as a form of positive reinforcement.
76
What is extinction in the context of conditioning?
Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response due to the absence of reinforcement.
77
Discuss the impact of Pavlov's and Skinner's work on behavioral psychology.
Pavlov's and Skinner's conditioning theories have significantly influenced the treatment of mental illnesses, leading to the development of aversion and exposure therapies.
78
Describe the belief of humanist psychologists regarding individual help.
Humanist psychologists believe that the individual is the best source of their own help and learning, emphasizing a client-focused approach.
79
What type of research methods do humanist psychologists prefer?
Humanist psychologists prefer qualitative research methods, which involve non-numeric data such as beliefs or feelings.
80
Define logotherapy as proposed by Viktor Frankl.
Logotherapy is the theory that everyone has an inborn inclination to seek the meaning of their existence, and the lack of this meaning can lead to emptiness and depression.
81
How can one find meaning according to Viktor Frankl?
One can find meaning through creativity (work and hobbies), experiential experiences (experiencing something or someone), and attitude (choosing how to respond to a situation).
82
Explain how logotherapy is considered humanistic.
Logotherapy is considered humanistic because it relies on the individual to fulfill their own needs and requires them to enact a change in their lifestyle.
83
What is self-actualization according to Abraham Maslow?
Self-actualization is reaching one’s fullest potential, where an individual is always in a state of 'becoming'.
84
Describe Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a theory that suggests humans are born with needs that must be met in a specific order, leading to self-actualization.
85
List the order of needs in Maslow's Hierarchy.
1. Physiological needs, 2. Safety needs, 3. Love and Belonging, 4. Esteem, 5. Self-actualization.
86
What occurs if one level of need in Maslow's hierarchy is not met?
If one level of need is not met, an individual cannot move higher up the hierarchy, preventing them from achieving self-actualization.
87
Provide an example of unmet needs in Maslow's hierarchy.
If a person cannot find food and water for survival, they will focus on basic survival rather than reaching their fullest potential.
88
Why is Maslow's theory sometimes questioned?
Maslow's theory is sometimes questioned due to its elitist ordering of hierarchy, which can be seen as politically biased.
89
What is client-centered therapy as defined by Carl Rogers?
Client-centered therapy is a humanistic therapy where the client plays an active role in changing their personality traits and behaviors.
90
Explain the Client-centered model in therapy.
The Client-centered model views the individual as the best source of their own help, reducing the therapist's role to that of a guide.
91
What benefit can clients gain from the client-centered model of therapy?
Clients can build coping habits for their mental illnesses and create sustainable habits that are more likely to stick.
92
Define cognition in the context of psychology.
Cognition refers to the mental processes in the brain associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering.
93
What is cognitive psychology?
Cognitive psychology is the study and application of how the brain learns.
94
Why is cognitive psychology often paired with behavioral psychology?
Cognitive psychology is paired with behavioral psychology to create methods for treating mental illnesses.
95
Explain Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory.
Bandura's social-cognitive theory considers a person's motivations, environment, and behavior to understand why different people may respond differently to the same situation.
96
Describe the Bobo-doll experiment conducted by Albert Bandura.
In the Bobo-doll experiment, children watched adults behaving aggressively towards Bobo-dolls and subsequently displayed aggressive behavior themselves, demonstrating that behaviors can be learned through observation.
97
What area of study is Elizabeth Loftus known for?
Elizabeth Loftus is known for studying human memories, particularly the repression of certain memories and the development of false memories.
98
What was Loftus's belief about repressed memories and why was it controversial?
Loftus believed that repressed memories are often false memories, which raised ethical concerns as it could lead to individuals recalling events that did not actually happen.
99
Define heredity.
The passing on of traits from parents to offspring.
100
Describe the significance of studying twins in psychology.
To remove environmental and genetic influences for traits and disorders, reducing the amount of possibility for a result to be affected by other factors.
101
Explain the concept of nature vs. nurture.
The debate of whether our genetics determine our behavior, or whether our environment, upbringing, and life experiences cause us to behave in certain ways.
102
How does the case of 'Genie' contribute to our understanding of child development?
It revealed that children are feral until they are conditioned into socially acceptable behavior by others, indicating that upbringing determines what behaviors are deemed socially acceptable.
103
Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is driven by personal interests and enjoyment, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or to avoid punishment.
104
Provide an example of intrinsic motivation from personal experience.
Finding an interest in reading books.
105
Provide an example of extrinsic motivation from personal experience.
Being academically motivated by parents.
106
What is the negativity bias?
The tendency to pay more attention to negative information than positive information.
107
Define ethics in the context of psychology.
Moral obligations that define right or wrong in our practices and decisions.
108
Why are ethical standards important for psychologists?
They protect the rights and well-being of clients, maintaining a moral compass when determining whether the cause justifies the means.
109
What do sociologists study?
Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining groups, cultures, social institutions, and the processes that develop when people interact.
110
Identify some issues that sociologists investigate.
Sociologists investigate issues like economy, work, family, gender, social organizations, social stability, society, and the environment.
111
What did Comte define sociology as?
The discipline that attempts to understand the forces outside us that shape our lives, interests, and personalities.
112
Summarize Comte's belief about society.
Comte believed that society acts similarly to the mind, passing through three theoretical conditions: Theological, Metaphysical, and Scientific.
113
List a shared symbol recognized in Canadian society.
The maple leaf, which symbolizes pride and loyalty.
114
What is an example of a learned behavior in Canadian society?
Canadians are known for being polite and respectful.
115
Define values in the context of society.
Shared ideas within a society about standards that are considered acceptable.
116
Provide an example of a value in Canadian society.
Free speech is a value in Canada.
117
Explain norms with an example.
Norms are expectations about how to behave in a particular situation; for example, yelling and singing at a concert is expected, but it would be unacceptable at school.
118
What are roles in a societal context?
Sets of expectations of others because of their particular social position.
119
Describe the importance of objectivity in sociological research.
Objectivity in sociological research is crucial to ensure credible and accurate results, avoiding biases that could lead to discrediting the findings and potentially causing negative effects on society.
120
Give an example of universality in studying societies.
Kinship is a universal aspect across all cultures, as societies organize themselves around familial relationships and structures, governing inheritance, social roles, and obligations.
121
Explain why sociologists compare societies.
Sociologists compare societies to uncover patterns, commonalities, and unique features, which helps in developing theories that explain social behavior, change, and stability.
122
Define macrosociology and microsociology.
Macrosociology studies the large-scale influences on human societies, while microsociology focuses on individual and small group interactions within society.
123
List the five main schools of thought in sociology.
The five main schools of thought in sociology are Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism, Social Constructionism, Social Conflict, and Feminist Theory.
124
What is structural functionalism?
Structural functionalism is a theory that posits that social systems and institutions are necessary for social stability, working to meet society's needs to prevent chaos.
125
Summarize Emile Durkheim's belief about society.
Emile Durkheim believed that society is more than just individuals; it has its own reality and operates according to laws and structures that shape individual actions and promote social cohesion.
126
Define functional differentiation.
Functional differentiation is the process by which different social systems, institutions, or roles become specialized and distinct from one another in complex societies.
127
What is Conflict Theory in sociology?
Conflict Theory is a sociological perspective that emphasizes the roles of power, inequality, and conflict in shaping society.
128
What does Conflict Theory primarily focus on?
Conflict Theory primarily focuses on power dynamics, inequality, and the struggles between different social groups, highlighting that society is characterized by conflict rather than consensus.
129
Describe feminist sociology.
Feminist Sociology analyzes and critiques how gender, particularly the oppression of women, shapes social structures, relationships, and individual experiences, focusing on power dynamics based on gender inequality.
130
What issues did feminist sociologists begin to study in the 20th century?
In the 20th century, feminist sociologists began to study issues related to gender inequality, power dynamics, and the societal construction of gender roles, critiquing traditional sociological theories.
131
What conclusion did feminist sociologists reach about women in society?
Feminist sociologists concluded that women are often subordinated and marginalized due to deeply ingrained gender inequalities rooted in patriarchal structures, embedded in social institutions and cultural norms.
132
Describe Gerda Lerner's view of patriarchal systems.
She viewed patriarchy as a historically constructed system of male dominance that appeared over time, particularly with the rise of agriculture and private property.
133
Explain Dorothy Smith's belief about society.
She believed that society is gendered and patriarchal, with traditional sociology reflecting male perspectives that marginalize women’s experiences.
134
Define symbolic interactionism.
Symbolic Interactionism focuses on how individuals create and interpret meanings through social interactions, acting based on the meanings they attach to things, events, and behaviors.
135
How does symbolic interactionism differ from structural functionalism and conflict theory?
Symbolic Interactionism focuses on a micro level and individual meaning-making, while structural functionalism emphasizes social stability on a macro level, and conflict theory highlights power and inequality on a macro level.
136
What is social behavior?
Social behavior is how individuals act and interact within a society or group, influenced by social norms, values, roles, and context.
137
Define social influence and differentiate between direct and indirect influence.
Social influence is how individuals' attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or decisions are shaped by others. Direct influence is immediate and clear, while indirect influence is subtle and occurs through broader societal factors.
138
How does the family influence behavior?
Families shape behavior through early socialization, teaching norms and values, providing emotional support, and serving as role models.
139
Explain how gender influences behavior.
Gender influences behavior by affecting individuals' actions, career choices, emotional expression, and interactions based on perceived gender roles.
140
Describe the influence of culture on behavior.
Cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and social expectations guide behavior, shaping personal decisions and social norms.
141
How does the media influence behavior?
Media influences behavior by shaping beliefs about what is 'normal' or 'ideal,' reinforcing stereotypes, and affecting attitudes through portrayal and advertising.
142
What is socialization?
Socialization is the lifelong process of learning and sharing norms, customs, and ideologies necessary for participating in society.
143
Describe the process of socialization.
The process of socialization involves individuals learning and adopting the values, norms, and behaviors of their society.
144
Define primary socialization.
Primary Socialization is the learning of basic skills needed to survive in society, such as hygiene, language, and proper dress.
145
What is secondary socialization?
Secondary Socialization is the learning of proper behaviors and how to behave in group situations.
146
Describe anticipatory socialization.
Anticipatory Socialization is learning how to anticipate proper behaviours for a social situation before it happens, such as knowing how to dress for an occasion or how to address someone's parents.
147
Define resocialization.
Resocialization is the process by which one’s sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are re-engineered, often due to changes in social contexts or entering new environments.
148
How does gender influence socialization?
Gender influences socialization by shaping behaviours and expectations based on social norms for boys and girls, with distinct roles and interests taught from family to media.
149
Explain the effects of abnormal socialization on individuals.
Abnormal socialization can lead to emotional issues, behavioural problems, and difficulty forming relationships, often stemming from neglect, abuse, or dysfunctional environments.
150
What are the root causes of abuse in socialization contexts?
Root causes of abuse include family dysfunction, neglect, domestic violence, socioeconomic factors, and harmful cultural norms, contributing to unhealthy social development.
151
Identify the agents of socialization.
Agents of Socialization include Culture, Religion, Media, Work, School, Peers, and Family.
152
Explain the primary agent of socialization: the family.
The family teaches children basic values, language, cultural norms, and social behaviours, providing emotional support and influencing gender roles and identity.
153
Describe the role of schools as secondary agents of socialization.
Schools teach academic knowledge, social skills, and values like fairness and teamwork, helping individuals navigate life.
154
How do peer groups function as agents of socialization?
Peer groups influence behaviour, values, and attitudes through group norms and peer pressure, offering emotional support and shaping identity.
155
What is the role of the workplace in socialization?
The workplace teaches professional norms, responsibility, and teamwork, while reinforcing social hierarchies and the values of productivity and success.
156
Explain how media acts as an agent of socialization.
Media shapes perceptions of reality, gender roles, and societal ideals, influencing beliefs and behaviours through various platforms like television and social media.
157
Describe the influence of religion on socialization.
Religion instills moral values, ethical behaviour, and spiritual beliefs, fostering a sense of community and shaping worldviews.
158
Define institutions in the context of socialization.
Institutions are established systems that organize and regulate aspects of social life, shaping behaviour and providing stability, such as family, government, and healthcare.
159
What is discrimination?
Discrimination is an act of treating an individual or group unfairly based on a common unidentifiable characteristic.
160
Define a stereotype and provide an example.
A stereotype is an exaggerated view or judgement made about a group of people, such as the belief that women are more nurturing and emotional than men.
161
Explain racism and its implications.
Racism is the belief that some races are inherently superior or inferior to others, leading to discrimination, prejudice, and unequal treatment based on race.
162
What is sexism and how does it manifest?
Sexism is the belief that one gender, typically men, is superior to another, typically women, resulting in discrimination and unequal treatment based on gender.
163
Define classism and its effects.
Classism is the belief that people from certain social or economic classes are superior to those from other classes, leading to discrimination or prejudice based on socioeconomic status.
164
What is ableism?
Ableism is the discrimination, prejudice, or social bias against people with disabilities, often manifesting as stereotypes, unequal treatment, or exclusion.
165
Define prejudice.
Prejudice is an individual judgment about or active hostility toward another social group, often stemming from stereotypes.
166
Describe the difference between overt discrimination and systemic discrimination.
Overt discrimination involves intentional actions against an individual or group due to distinguishing characteristics, while systemic discrimination is subtle and unintentional, with outcomes not fully understood by those taking the action.
167
What is solidarity?
Solidarity is the sense of unity and connection that people feel with each other when part of an in-group, such as friends and family.
168
Define informal groups.
Informal groups are groups of people who form on their own to meet social needs, such as friendship, and are not defined by an organization.
169
What characterizes a primary group?
A primary group is a small group whose members have personal and often emotional relationships, such as family and close friends, and it is the most influential group to which one can belong.
170
Describe a secondary group and provide an example.
A secondary group is an impersonal or formal gathering of people where individual roles are measured by their contributions to a common goal, such as a school sports team.
171
What is a virtual community?
A virtual community is a group of individuals who communicate over the internet based on shared interests, characterized by digital communication through platforms like forums or social media.
172
Define roles in the context of group behavior.
Roles are the expected behaviors associated with a particular social position within a group.
173
What are norms?
Norms are rules for behavior that dictate how members of a group should act.
174
Explain sanctions in social groups.
Sanctions are consequences or rewards that reinforce norms and influence the behavior of group members.
175
What is conformity?
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, even if one does not personally agree with them.
176
Define compliance.
Compliance is the act of doing what one is told, even if one might not agree, to avoid punishment or gain a reward.
177
What is counterculture?
Counterculture refers to a group or subculture whose values and norms run counter to the mainstream social norms of a region.
178
Describe deviance.
Deviance is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, including acts that break laws.
179
What makes us human?
Our ability to think critically, use language, express emotions, create culture, and develop technology.
180
Define anthropology.
Anthropology is the study of humans, their societies, cultures, and development over time.
181
List the topics studied in anthropology.
Topics studied in anthropology include physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics.
182
What are the three main branches of physical anthropology?
The three main branches are paleoanthropology (study of ancient humans through fossils), primatology (study of non-human primates), and human variation (study of genetic and physical differences among humans).
183
Define culture.
Culture is a set of shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices that shape a society.
184
What are norms, values, and roles in anthropology?
Norms are rules for behavior, values are shared beliefs about what is important, and roles are expected behaviors based on social positions.
185
Describe cultural materialism in anthropology.
Cultural materialism explains culture by examining material conditions like economy or resources.
186
What does post-modernism emphasize in anthropology?
Post-modernism emphasizes subjectivity and the rejection of universal truths.
187
What is the focus of feminist anthropology?
Feminist anthropology focuses on gender roles and inequalities within cultures.
188
Who studied primates?
Primatologists study non-human primates.
189
Describe the contributions of Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Biruté Galdikas.
They are prominent figures in the study of primatology, focusing on the behavior and conservation of primates.
190
Define paleoanthropology.
It is the study of human evolution through fossils and artifacts.
191
Explain ethnology.
It is the comparative study of cultures.
192
What is naïve realism?
It is the belief that everyone sees the world the same way you do.
193
Differentiate between emic and etic perspectives.
Emic is the insider’s view of a culture, while etic is the outsider’s scientific perspective of a culture.
194
Outline the three steps of Rites of Passage.
1. Separation: Leaving the current social role. 2. Transition: Being between roles (liminality). 3. Incorporation: Entering a new role.
195
Define sociology.
It is the study of human societies, relationships, and social behavior.
196
Identify topics studied in sociology.
Social structures, institutions, culture, deviance, and socialization.
197
Describe the forms of socialization.
1. Primary: Early learning within family. 2. Secondary: Learning outside the family, e.g., at school. 3. Anticipatory: Preparing for future roles. 4. Resocialization: Adapting to new norms and values.
198
What is social identity?
It is how individuals define themselves in relation to society.
199
Define counterculture.
It is a group rejecting dominant societal norms and values.
200
Differentiate between macrosociology and microsociology.
Macrosociology focuses on large-scale social systems, while microsociology focuses on individual interactions.
201
Explain deviance in sociology.
It is behavior that violates societal norms.
202
Contrast primary and secondary groups.
Primary groups are small, close, personal relationships (e.g., family), while secondary groups are larger, impersonal groups (e.g., coworkers).
203
Differentiate between conformity and compliance.
Conformity is changing behavior to match group norms, while compliance is following orders or requests.
204
Describe the schools of thought in sociology.
1. Social Constructionism: Reality is shaped through social interactions. 2. Conflict Theory: Society is shaped by power struggles and inequality. 3. Functionalism: Society functions like an organism, with interdependent parts. 4. Symbolic Interactionism: Focus on symbols and interactions shaping society.
205
Define bourgeoisie in the context of sociology.
It refers to the wealthy, owning class in capitalist societies, as described by Marx.
206
What is psychology?
It is the study of behavior and mental processes.
207
Identify topics studied in psychology.
Memory, learning, motivation, emotions, personality, and mental health.
208
Explain Viktor Frankl's concept of Logotherapy.
It is about finding meaning in life, even in suffering.
209
Summarize Sigmund Freud's key ideas.
1. Id: Instincts and desires. 2. Ego: Rational self, balances id and superego. 3. Superego: Moral conscience. 4. Defense Mechanisms: Coping methods for anxiety (e.g., denial, repression).
210
Describe Ivan Pavlov's concept of classical conditioning.
It is learning through association, where an unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers a response, and a conditioned stimulus triggers a learned response.
211
Explain B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning.
It is learning through rewards and punishments.
212
What was the significance of Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment?
It demonstrated observational learning, showing that children mimic adult aggression.
213
Outline Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
1. Physiological (basic needs). 2. Safety (security). 3. Love/Belonging (relationships). 4. Esteem (respect). 5. Self-Actualization (personal growth).
214
Identify the Big Five Personality Traits.
1. Openness. 2. Conscientiousness. 3. Extraversion. 4. Agreeableness. 5. Neuroticism.
215
List the branches of psychology.
1. Behavioral. 2. Psychodynamic. 3. Humanist. 4. Cognitive. 5. Abnormal.
216
Explain the concept of extended self and self-recognition.
It refers to the awareness of oneself as distinct and separate from others.
217
What is Behavioral Psychology?
Behavioral psychology focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interaction with the environment, emphasizing the role of reinforcement and punishment.
218
What is Psychodynamic Psychology?
Psychodynamic psychology explores how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, often rooted in childhood experiences, as proposed by Freud.
219
What is Humanist Psychology?
Humanist psychology emphasizes individual potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization, focusing on personal experiences and feelings.
220
What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, focusing on how people understand and think about the world.
221
What is Abnormal Psychology?
Abnormal psychology examines unusual patterns of behavior, emotion, and thought, often in the context of mental disorders and their treatment.
222
What is Developmental Psychology?
Developmental psychology studies the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout a person's lifespan, focusing on cognitive, emotional, and social development.
223
What is Social Psychology?
Social psychology examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others, including group dynamics, social perception, and interpersonal relationships.
224
What is Neuropsychology?
Neuropsychology explores the relationship between brain function and behavior, studying how brain injuries or diseases affect cognitive functions and behaviors.
225
What is Forensic Psychology?
Forensic psychology applies psychological principles to legal issues, including the assessment of individuals involved in the legal system and understanding criminal behavior.
226
What is Health Psychology?
Health psychology focuses on how psychological factors influence health and illness, promoting healthy behaviors and understanding the psychological impact of chronic diseases.
