Exam Flashcards
(98 cards)
1
Q
When did Judaea come under Roman authority?
A
65 BCE
2
Q
What year did Judaea become a Roman province?
A
6 CE
3
Q
What significant event occurred in Jerusalem in 38 CE?
A
Revolt in Jerusalem
4
Q
What years did the 1st full-scale Jewish revolt take place?
A
66-73 CE
5
Q
What happened to the Temple at Jerusalem in 70 CE?
A
Destroyed
6
Q
What were the years of the 2nd full-scale Jewish revolt?
A
132-135 CE
7
Q
What was the consequence of the 2nd full-scale Jewish revolt?
A
Judaea eliminated as a province
8
Q
What is proselytism?
A
Conversion to Judaism, including ‘God-fearers’
9
Q
What does nationalism in this context refer to?
A
Zionism
10
Q
Who was John the Baptist?
A
A figure associated with purity and baptism
11
Q
When is Jesus believed to have been born?
A
3 BCE?
12
Q
What is the significance of Pentecost in Christianity?
A
Conversion of non-Jews
13
Q
Who is referred to as the ‘inventor of Christianity’?
A
Paul of Tarsus
14
Q
What major event happened in 70 CE related to Judaism?
A
Destruction of the Temple
15
Q
What was established in the 2nd Century regarding Christian texts?
A
Official canon of Christian ‘booklets’ (biblia)
16
Q
What role did bishops play in early Christianity?
A
Organize followers
17
Q
What does the Church represent in Christianity?
A
The medium between man and God
18
Q
True or False: Christianity faced no oppression from 30-220 CE.
A
False
19
Q
What was the first official persecution of Christians?
A
251-260 CE
20
Q
What was the ‘Great Persecution’?
A
Persecution by Diocletian from 303-313 CE
21
Q
What did the Edict of Toleration accomplish?
A
Ended persecution in 311 CE
22
Q
Who summoned ecumenical councils to define orthodox Christianity?
A
Constantine
23
Q
What was the heresy of Arius?
A
A theological dispute addressed by Constantine
24
Q
What was the significance of Constantinople?
A
New capital established by Constantine
25
Who was Julian and what was his title?
Julian (361-363): The Apostate
26
What battle occurred in 378?
Battle of Adrianopolis
27
What was the migration period of the Huns?
375-600 CE
28
What were the dimensions of the Circus Maximus?
620 m x 120 m x 30 m high
29
How many chariot races were held per day in the Circus Maximus?
24
30
What was the racing format for chariots?
Counter-clockwise seven times
31
What prizes were awarded for chariot racing?
Wreath and Palm Branch, Money
32
Fill in the blank: The starting gates for chariot racing are _______.
[key learning term]
33
What does 'Miliarii' refer to?
'The 1,000 Men' associated with chariot racing
34
What was the typical weight of a quadriga's equipment?
25-50 kg
35
What is a quadriga?
A 4 horse team used in chariot racing
36
What were the general reactions to the assassination of Caesar?
Conspirators were forced to flee
Expected praise, but faced hostility.
Public and veterans supported Caesar.
Brutus & Cassius fled East to raise armies.
37
Who took control of Rome after Caesar's assassination?
Mark Antony
Gave powerful funeral speech → turned public against conspirators.
Seized Caesar's documents and treasury.
Tried to assume Caesar’s role.
38
Who was Caesar's heir?
Octavian (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus)
18 years old; Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted son.
Used Caesar’s name, wealth, and veteran loyalty to build support.
Entered political rivalry with Antony.
39
Who was in the second triumvirate?
Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus
Legal body with near-dictatorial powers.
Launched proscriptions: ~2,300 aristocrats executed or exiled (incl. Cicero).
40
Describe the Battle of Philippi (42)
Octavian & Antony vs. Brutus & Cassius.
Both conspirators defeated and committed suicide.
Aftermath:
Antony: Took Eastern provinces; went to Egypt.
Octavian: Controlled Western provinces, focused on Rome/Italy.
41
Describe the Perusine War (41-40)
Conflict between Octavian and Antony’s supporters.
Sparked by Fulvia (Antony’s wife) and Lucius Antonius (his brother).
Octavian besieged and captured Perusia.
Strengthened Octavian’s hold on Italy.
Mark Antony and Octavian’s sister, Octavia, married in 40 BCE
Aimed to ease tensions between Antony and Octavian.
Temporary stabilization of the Triumvirate.
42
Describe the significance of the elimination of Sextus Pompey and Lepidus (39–36 BCE)
Sextus Pompey controlled Sicily; blocked grain supply to Rome.
Octavian defeats him in naval battles (notably at Naulochus, 36 BCE).
Lepidus tries to claim Sicily, fails — is stripped of power and exiled.
Result: Octavian becomes sole ruler of the West.
43
Explain the significance of Antony's affair with Cleopatra
Antony forms political and romantic alliance with Cleopatra VII of Egypt.
Ignores his wife Octavia (Octavian’s sister), left behind in Italy.
Seen in Rome as betrayal of Roman values and family loyalty.
44
What was the result of Mark Antony's military campaigns between 42-32?
Parthia (unsuccessful): Major failure; heavy losses (36 BCE).
Armenia: Partial success, but used for propaganda in Egypt.
45
Explain the clash between Antony and Octavian (36-30)
Octavian uses propaganda: publishes Antony’s will.
Reveals desire to be buried in Egypt, not Rome.
Claims Antony gave land to Cleopatra’s children.
Shocks Roman public — seen as traitorous.
Battle of Actium (31 BCE)
Naval battle off the coast of Greece.
Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra’s forces.
Antony and Cleopatra flee to Egypt.
Deaths of Antony and Cleopatra (30 BCE)
Octavian invades Egypt.
Both commit suicide to avoid capture.
Octavian annexes Egypt as a Roman province.
46
Explain the dynamics of Octavian as sole ruler
Octavian held near-total control but needed public/legal approval.
Maintained roles of Triumvir and Consul (31–28 BCE) to retain authority.
47
Explain the significance of "The Republic Restored" in the textbook in regards to Octavian's sole ruling
“The Republic Restored” (First Settlement – 27 BCE)
Octavian resigns as dictator and consul to appear humble.
Senate grants him control of key provinces (esp. with armies) for 10 years.
This was a power-sharing illusion — Octavian still held real power.
Granted the title “Augustus” (27 BCE)
Symbol of honor and divine favor.
Marked the beginning of the Principate (early Roman Empire).
Other titles and meanings:
Auctoritas (influence): Claimed he surpassed all others in influence, not legal power.
Imperator: "commander.”
Princeps: “Leading citizen”
48
What happens under the subheading, "Second Settlement (23)"
Octavian announces he will not run for consul again (A move to appear more republican and reduce political dominance.)
His special province is renewed
Retains control over key military provinces.
Granted “Greater Imperium”
Power superior to all other governors, even within their own provinces.
Granted multiple permanent titles:
Tribune for Life
Right to propose laws, veto, and protect citizens.
Symbol of the people’s representative — without holding the office.
Pontifex Maximus
Chief priest of Rome — ultimate religious authority.
Given the title “Father of the Fatherland” (Pater Patriae)
Honorific title symbolizing his role as Rome’s protector and unifier.
49
Describe the lifestyle of the Roman Family in the Augustan Period
Legislation regarding marriage and children
Augustus passed laws to promote traditional Roman family values.
Augustus made adultery a public crime (Lex Julia de Adulteriis).
50
Explain the significance of Augustus' daughter in relation to the criminalization of adultery
Julia was accused of adultery and immorality.
She was exiled by Augustus, despite his efforts to control family behavior.
Example of the limits of Augustus' legislation even within his own family.
51
Explain Augustus' succession
Early heirs: Marcellus, Agrippa, Gaius, Lucius
Marcellus (nephew, son-in-law): Died young (23 BCE).
Agrippa (trusted general & son-in-law): Co-ruler in practice, died 12 BCE.
Gaius and Lucius (Augustus’ grandsons, adopted as heirs): Both died young (2 CE and 4 CE).
Augustus’ plans for a smooth succession repeatedly failed.
Tiberius becomes heir
Stepson of Augustus; experienced general and administrator.
Adopted formally in 4 CE after other heirs died.
Becomes Augustus’ successor and second emperor of Rome (14 CE).
52
Explain senate and equities in the Augustan period
Augustus reduces Senate size to 600 for efficiency and loyalty.
Restores prestige but increases his personal control over the body.
Troubles with the Senate
Senators often resisted or hesitated to challenge Augustus.
He had to balance appearing republican while holding ultimate authority.
Creates new equestrian posts
Equites (equestrians): Wealthy non-senators, second social class.
Given key roles:
Managed imperial provinces
Led financial administration
Commanded the Praetorian Guard (his personal bodyguard)
Favorable policies for equestrians
Augustus expanded their career opportunities.
Used them to bypass the Senate and centralize control under himself.
53
Explain the Army in the Augustan period
Discharges half the Roman army
About 140,000 soldiers released to reduce the size and cost.
Helped stabilize the post-civil war state.
Regularized soldier benefits
Higher salaries and clear promotion paths.
Retirement package after fixed service (typically 16–25 years).
New taxes introduced to fund benefits
Sales tax and inheritance tax established.
Created a military treasury (aerarium militare) to pay veterans.
54
Explain Augustus' Empire and Expansion
Augustus was the Greatest conqueror in Roman history
Added Egypt, parts of Spain, the Alps, the Balkans, and more.
Focused on security, not personal glory
Aimed to create defensible frontiers, not endless conquest.
Closed the gates of Janus (symbol of peace) multiple times — rare in Roman history.
Failed invasion of Germany
Attempt to expand past the Rhine River ended in disaster.
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9 CE): 3 Roman legions annihilated.
Augustus abandoned further German expansion after the defeat.
55
Explain the city of Rome and Augustus' influence on it
Augustus restored temples and builds new monuments
Promoted traditional Roman religion and values.
Famous quote: “I found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble.”
Improves services for the Roman people
Fire department created to prevent city-wide disasters.
Police force established to maintain order.
Improved aqueducts to increase clean water supply.
Public gladiatorial games funded by the state for entertainment.
Grain supply reorganized for better food distribution and stability.
56
Explain the subheading "Attitudes Outside of Rome"
Rome tightens control over cities in the empire
Local elites still governed, but under closer Roman supervision.
Emphasis on loyalty to Augustus and the imperial system.
Creation of the Imperial Cult
Worship of the emperor as a divine figure.
Promoted unity and loyalty across diverse provinces.
Worship of Augustus’ genius
Genius = divine spirit of a person.
Temples and rituals honored Augustus' personal and political authority.
Encouraged as a way to show allegiance to Rome.
57
Summarize Augustus' influence over Rome
Established the 'Principate'
New system where Augustus ruled as first citizen (Princeps), not king.
Maintained the appearance of the Republic, but held real power.
Population growth
Empire’s population may have grown by 25%, reaching ~50 million.
Reflects political stability and improved living conditions.
Economic growth
Expansion of trade, agriculture, and infrastructure.
Peace and order helped the economy flourish.
No civil wars for 100 years
Augustus ended the era of civil conflict.
His system maintained peace (Pax Romana) for a century.
“Luckier than Augustus”
Saying reflects his rare success in transforming and stabilizing Rome.
Seen as both fortunate and politically brilliant.
58
What did Augustus want his successor to have authority over?
The senate
The equites
The roman people and the provincials
The army (maius imperium)
59
Who was Tiberius?
Skilled general, but reserved and suspicious.
Reluctant to rule; seen as cold and unpopular.
Had a nephew, Germanicus (Popular military leader, adopted by Tiberius as heir), died mysteriously in 19 CE — caused public mourning and suspicion
Created Majesty” trials (maiestas), which were Trials for treason against the emperor.
Used increasingly to suppress dissent and eliminate rivals.
Increased reliance on the Praetorian Guard
Sejanus
Praetorian Prefect who gained immense power under Tiberius.
Executed in 31 CE for plotting to seize control.
Semi-retirement
Tiberius withdrew to Capri in later years.
Ruled remotely, increasing court intrigue and paranoia.
Administration of the Empire
Generally efficient and stable governance.
Maintained Augustus' policies, balanced budget, and avoided expansion.
60
Who was Gaius (Caligula)
Germanicus’ son
Grandson of Augustus by adoption.
Nicknamed Caligula ("little boots") from childhood with the army.
Early policies
Popular at first: ended treason trials, gave bonuses to soldiers, and hosted lavish games.
Madness/illness
Possibly suffered a severe illness in 38 CE.
Behavior changed drastically afterward.
Claimed to be a god, built a temple to himself.
Allegedly made his horse a consul.
Humiliated senators and challenged Roman norms.
Bankrupted the Treasury
Spent recklessly on games, buildings, and personal extravagance.
Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
Killed in 41 CE due to tyranny and instability.
61
Who was Claudius?
Early life & nomination by the Praetorian Guard
Considered weak and unfit due to a speech impediment and limp.
Surprisingly made emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula’s assassination.
Relied on wives and ex-slaves
Depended heavily on imperial freedmen for administration.
Allowed wives significant influence in politics.
Administration of the Empire
Efficient and expansionist:
Conquered Britain (43 CE).
Improved bureaucracy and justice system.
Extended citizenship and built aqueducts, roads.
Messalina and Agrippina
Messalina: 3rd wife; executed for conspiracy.
Agrippina the Younger: 4th wife; mother of Nero, persuaded Claudius to adopt him.
62
Who was Nero?
Emperor at 17
Initially controlled by Agrippina (his mother), Seneca, and Burrus.
The Neronia
Cultural festival celebrating Greek-style arts and athletics.
Nero the performer
Performed as actor, singer, poet—shocking Roman elite.
Saw himself as a patron of the arts, not just a ruler.
Majesty trials
Revived treason trials to suppress opposition.
The Great Fire (64)
Destroyed much of Rome; Nero blamed Christians.
Used disaster to rebuild Rome and construct his lavish Domus Aurea (Golden House).
Conspiracy Plot (65)
Led by senators and elites; uncovered and crushed by Nero.
Suicide (68)
Faced widespread rebellion and abandonment by the Senate.
Declared a public enemy; killed himself.
Rebellion in Spain
Led by Galba, governor of Hispania; signaled the end of the Julio-Claudian line.
63
Explain the civil war in 68-69
Four commanders declared emperor:
Galba (Spain) – Backed by the Senate but unpopular with the army.
Otho (Rome) – Took power after Galba’s assassination.
Vitellius (Germany) – Defeated Otho; ruled briefly.
Vespasian (Judaea) – Commanding forces in the East; ultimately victorious.
Marked by rapid successions, military violence, and power struggles.
64
Explain the economic and social changes brought upon the Army after the civil war
150,000 legionaries plus auxiliaries plus navy
Roman army expanded to include 150,000 legionaries (heavy infantry).
Auxiliaries (non-citizen soldiers) and the navy also grew.
Switch from agrarian to commodity economy
Shifted focus from agriculture to trade and goods production.
Expansion of markets, increased demand for commodities, and the rise of urban centers.
65
Explain cities and provinces in Rome
Interaction of settlements of veterans & native tribes
Veteran colonies (settled soldiers) were often established in conquered territories.
Led to blending of Roman and local cultures but also conflicts with native tribes.
Introduction of Roman civilization/cities to the empire
Romans spread their urban planning, laws, and administrative systems across the provinces.
Roman innovations: Concrete, roads, harbors, aqueducts, forums, amphitheaters, engineering, etc
66
Explain the Imperial cult
Temples/priests/sacrifices for the Emperor and his family
Worship of Emperor and family through temples, priests, and sacrifices.
Sacred rituals dedicated to the Emperor’s genius (divine essence).
Deification of dead Emperors
After death, emperors could be deified (made gods) and honored with temples.
Julius Caesar, Augustus, Claudius
Julius Caesar: First emperor to be deified.
Augustus: Revered as a god after death.
Claudius: Deified posthumously, despite being an unpopular emperor.
‘The Pumpkinification of Claudius’
Refers to the mockery of Claudius’s deification, suggesting he was elevated to godhood as part of a political move.
Most towns had an Imperial temple
Imperial temples were common across the empire; towns built them to honor the Emperor.
Being the priest (Augustalis) was an honor and a prestigious position.
67
Explain marriage in the Roman Empire
Legal documents, epitaphs, writings of Roman moralists, and inscriptions provide insights into Roman marriage practices
Marriage “in the hand” and “without the hand”
“In the hand” (manus): Husband has legal control over wife; wife is under his authority.
“Without the hand”: Marriage where wife retains legal independence, not under husband's control.
The dowry was a gift from the wife’s family to the husband’s, often used as security in case of divorce.
Divorce proceedings
Relatively simple for men to initiate; no formal legal process required, just a written declaration.
Women could also divorce, though it was less common and more complex.
Legal requirements for marriage
Consent of both parties; no close kinship (avoiding incest).
In some cases, census registration was required.
Marriage ceremony
Involved a ritual with vows and symbolic acts (e.g., joining hands).
Held in front of witnesses to formalize the union.
Ideals of marriage
Ideal marriage: piety, loyalty, and fertility; social and political duty.
The univira and the nuclear family
Univira: Ideal of the faithful wife who marries only once, often seen as virtuous.
Nuclear family: Emphasis on the husband, wife, and children as the basic unit of Roman society.
Testimony of epitaphs
Epitaphs provide personal insights into relationships, honoring the spouses and their roles in marriage.
Roman moralists on marriage
Writers like Cicero, Ovid, and Pliny commented on marriage morals, often emphasizing fidelity, piety, and family values.
68
Explain the status of children in the Roman Empire
Ceremonies after childbirth
Naming ceremony: The child’s name was officially given, often on the ninth day after birth for boys and eighth day for girls.
Cleansing ceremony: Performed by the father or Pontifex Maximus, symbolizing the child’s integration into Roman society.
Adoption
Common practice: Often used for political or social reasons.
Allowed families without male heirs to maintain their lineage and ensure succession.
Adoption of adults (especially in the imperial family) was not uncommon for political stability.
Inheritance laws
Roman children, particularly sons, had a legal right to inherit their father’s property.
Testamentary freedom: Fathers could decide their heirs in a will, but Roman law generally favored children as heirs.
Patria potestas: The father had absolute authority over his children, even in matters of inheritance, until they became independent.
69
Explain the Legal Rights & Status of Women in the Roman Empire
Property rights
Women could own property, but control was often limited by male guardians.
Dowries were controlled by women, but other property was often under male authority.
Guardians
Women typically had a male guardian (father, husband, or relative).
Needed a guardian to be legally independent unless emancipated.
Visibility & social presence
Women’s roles were mostly private (family, household).
Public roles were limited, but they participated in religious ceremonies.
In the Republican Era: matrona ideal
Matrona: Ideal Roman wife, virtuous, chaste, focused on family.
In the Imperial Era: transgressive women
Women like Livia and Agrippina held political influence.
Transgressive women like Messalina challenged norms (scandals, sexual behavior).
70
Explain the Institutionalization of the Principate
Law concerning the Imperium of Vespasian
Set out the powers of the emperor.
Defined the legal framework for imperial authority.
Imperator (emperor) becomes an official title
Imperator: Title used by generals, later adopted as the official title for emperors.
Also Princeps, Augustus
Princeps: "First Citizen," emphasized the emperor’s role as a leader among equals.
Augustus: Title of honor used to refer to the emperor.
Eventually even Caesar
The title Caesar became linked with imperial rule, used to denote future emperors.
71
Who was Vespasian?
Novus homo of the Flavius family
First emperor from the Flavian family (non-aristocratic origins).
Governor of Judaea
Vespasian served as governor of Judaea and played a key role in the First Jewish War.
1st Jewish War
Led Roman forces in the Jewish Revolt (66-73 CE), culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem.
Military reform
Reorganized the Roman military for greater effectiveness and discipline.
“It doesn’t smell”
Famous for his response to criticisms of the condition of Rome: “It doesn’t smell” (referring to the public building projects).
72
Who was Nerva?
Elderly ex-consul
Nerva was an elderly senator and former consul when he became emperor.
Complaints from Praetorian Guard
Faced dissatisfaction from the Praetorian Guard, which led to instability.
Rumors of rebellions
There were rumors of rebellions during his short reign due to the tension with the guard and the Senate.
Nerva adopts Trajan and names him his successor
73
Who was Trajan
A Spaniard
Trajan was born in Hispania (modern Spain), making him the first emperor from the provinces.
Optimus Princeps
Known as the "Best Princeps", Trajan earned this title for his effective leadership and military success.
Military campaigns
Trajan led successful military campaigns, especially in Dacia (modern Romania), expanding the empire to its greatest territorial extent.
Social reforms
Implemented significant social reforms focusing on the welfare of citizens, especially the poor.
Alimenta: A system of state-supported food programs to assist poor children and support agriculture.
Created the position of Curator to manage the public finances and infrastructure.
2nd Jewish revolt
Faced the Second Jewish Revolt (115-117), which he successfully suppressed.
Adopts Hadrian on his deathbed
On his deathbed, Trajan adopted Hadrian, ensuring a smooth succession.
74
Who was Hadrian?
Wandering emperor
Hadrian was known as the "wandering emperor" due to his extensive travels across the empire, inspecting and overseeing various provinces.
Border policy
Focused on strengthening and consolidating the empire's borders, particularly with the construction of Hadrian's Wall in Britain to mark the northern frontier.
3rd Jewish Revolt (132-135)
Faced the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-135) in Judea, a significant Jewish rebellion that was brutally suppressed, leading to the destruction of Jerusalem and heavy consequences for the Jewish population.
75
Explain Roman Cities and the Empire's Peoples
Roman Empire was at its largest size and highest population under Trajan and Hadrian
20% of the inhabitants lived in cities
Sharp increase in social mobility
76
When did mount Vesuvius erupt?
August 24, 79 AD
77
Who was Marcus Aurelius?
The Meditations: Marcus Aurelius wrote his personal reflections on Stoic philosophy, which became a key text in the Stoic tradition.
Fought the Parthian War (161-166), successfully defending the eastern frontier and securing the empire’s borders.
Faced several natural disasters, including a devastating plague and famine, which contributed to the empire’s challenges during his reign.
Managed the Marcomannic Wars along the Danube River, defending the empire from Germanic tribes.
78
Who was Commodus?
Commodus took numerous grandiose titles, including:
Amazonius Invictus (Invincible Amazon),
Pius Felix (Pious and Happy),
Hercules Romanus (Roman Hercules), reflecting his self-image as a god-like figure.
Assassinated on Dec 31, 192
Commodus was assassinated on December 31, 192, marking the end of the Antonine dynasty.
79
Who was Septimius Severus?
193: Year of 4 Emperors – Civil war, Severus emerges victorious.
Phoenician African – Born in Leptis Magna (modern-day Libya).
Military reforms – Increased pay and loyalty of soldiers.
Julia Domna – Wife, Empress, Mother of the Army. Politically influential.
80
Explain the Severan Dynasty
Caracalla (211-218) murders brother Geta
Constitutio Antoniana (212)
Attacks from Germany, Armenia, Parthia
Assassinated by officers in his army
Macrinus (217-218)
Tries to negotiate peace, reduce military pay
Assassinated by his troops
Elagabalus (218-222)
Worshipped Syrian sun god, Elah-Gabal
Assassinated by his bodyguard
Severus Alexander (222-235)
The dominant women in the Severan Dynasty
81
Explain the third century Roman Empire briefly
The Rise of the Germanic peoples – Increased pressure from Germanic tribes on Roman borders.
Internal instability – Economic troubles, military problems, and political fragmentation weaken the empire.
82
Explain what is meant by the subheading, "Zenobia in the east; Postumus in the West"
Monotheism (Sol Invictus) – Promoted worship of Sol Invictus (Unconquered Sun) as the chief god.
Abandons lands across the Danube – Pulls back Roman forces from border regions beyond the Danube River.
Aurelian Wall built in Rome – Constructed a massive defensive wall around Rome to protect it from invasions.
83
What was the Diocletian & the Tetrarchy (284-305)
The Tetrarchy – Division of the empire into 4 regions for easier management.
2 Augusti (senior emperors)
2 Caesars (junior emperors)
Numerous wars & revolts – Constant conflict across the empire, including internal revolts and foreign invasions.
84
Explain the dissolution of the Tetrarchy & the Rise of Constantine (305-324)
Diocletian abdicates – Diocletian steps down, leading to succession struggles.
Civil war ensues – Conflicts as rival factions (including emperors' children) fight for power.
Constantine defeats Maxentius – Battle at the Milvian Bridge (312) where Constantine wins, securing his rule.
85
Explain the Administrative Reorganization under the Dominate
The image of the emperor – Emperors depicted with crown, halo, and in consistorium; people kiss the hem of their clothing.
Persecution of dissidents – Suppression of religious and political opposition.
Bureaucracy of 35,000 civil servants – Large, centralized administrative structure.
Military doubles to 600,000 men – Expansion of the army for security.
Border vs Imperial troops – Split between defensive (border) and elite (imperial) forces.
State-run businesses – Government-owned industries.
Price Freeze & Tax planning – Economic controls to stabilize the empire.
86
Explain executions in the Roman empire
Retributive vs. Reformative Justice – Retributive: punishment for crimes; Reformative: attempts to reform through punishment.
Types of executions:
Crucifixion – Public, humiliating death.
Beasts – Victims thrown to animals in circuses.
Flames – Burning at the stake.
Games – Executions in gladiatorial contests.
87
Explain Munera (Gladiators)
Gladiatorial origins – Began as funeral rites to honor the dead.
Etruscan tomb paintings – Evidence from 370-340 BCE.
Southern Italy (4th century BCE) – Gladiatorial combat depicted in archaeological findings.
In Rome – First gladiatorial games held in 264 BCE.
88
Where were gladiators recruited?
POWs – Prisoners of war.
Criminals – Condemned individuals.
Slaves – Forced into combat.
Free men – Volunteered for pay or fame.
Infames – People with low social status (e.g., actors, prostitutes).
89
What armour did gladiators wear?
Loincloth
Belt
Leather and linen
Manica: Arm Protectors
Greaves: Leg Protectors
90
Describe Equites (Horsemen)
Appearance:
Colorful tunic – Distinctive clothing.
Helmet with 2 feathers – Symbol of status.
Activity:
Fought each other – Engaged in combat for entertainment.
91
Explain Murmillo
Opponents:
Thraex, Hoplomachus – Common rivals in combat.
Shield:
Tall oblong shield (scutum) – Large and rectangular.
Armor:
Weight: 16-18 kg – Heavy protective gear.
Helmet:
‘Fish’ on helmet – Distinctive design resembling a fish.
92
Explain Thracian
Opponent:
Murmillo – Primary rival in combat.
Helmet:
Griffin design – Distinctive helmet feature.
Shield:
Small shield – Lighter than some other gladiators.
Weapon:
Spear – Main weapon used in combat.
93
Explain Hoplomachus
Opponent:
Murmillo – Primary rival in combat.
Shield:
Small round shield – Compact and easy to maneuver.
Weapon:
Spear – Primary weapon used in combat.
94
Explain Retiarius
Role:
‘Net-fighter’ – Uses a net for combat.
Opponent:
Secutor – Primary rival in combat.
Armor:
No helmet – Often unprotected on the head.
Weapons:
Net – Used to entangle the opponent.
Trident – Primary weapon for attacking.
95
Explain Secutor
Nickname: “The Pursuer”
Opponent:
Retiarius – Net-fighter.
Armor:
Closed helmet – Smooth and enclosed to avoid getting caught in net.
Style:
Similar to Murmillo in armor and weapons.
96
Explain The Theodosian Dynasty to the First Sack of Rome (395–410)
Arcadius rules the East with the advisor Rufinus
Honorius rules the West, guided by general Stilicho
Tensions and rivalry between Eastern and Western courts
Increased migrations of Germanic peoples (esp. Visigoths) into Roman territory (405–410)
Stilicho attempts to manage the Visigothic threat through diplomacy and warfare
Stilicho executed in 408 — leaves a power vacuum in the West
Alaric and the Visigoths sack Rome in 410 — first time in 800 years
97
Explain The Fall of the Western Empire (410-476)
Visigoths settled in Spain and Gaul as federates
Vandals crossed through Spain, took North Africa (crucial for Rome’s grain supply)
2nd Sack of Rome by the Vandals in 455
Attila the Hun invades Gaul; defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (451)
Western Empire increasingly fragmented into barbarian kingdoms
Alans, Burgundians, Franks among key groups
Romulus Augustulus, last Western Roman Emperor, deposed in 476 by Odoacer
Marks the end of the Western Roman Empire
98
Explain The Growth of a Byzantine Empire in the East (408-491)
Byzantine emperors often undermined by powerful courtiers and bishops
Paid annual tribute to the Huns to avoid invasion
467: Emperor Leo I’s naval expedition to retake Africa from the Vandals
Ended in complete disaster
