exam Flashcards
(110 cards)
1
Q
- Explain Skinner’s theory of learning by operant conditioning.
A
- Behaviourist model - verbal behaviour - behaviour is shaped by the consequences
- learning occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour
- if the behaviour is rewarded it will strenghten, but if it is punished it will get weaker and finally disappear
- it is the relationship between the child and the response or punishment the adult gives to him/ her
2
Q
What are the shortcomings of Skinner’s model?
A
Noam Chomsky - it does not give explanations for several important factors: the capacity to acquire language, language development itself and the abstract nature of language (irony, etc. ), does not offer the structure but not on the meaning of the language
3
Q
name the innate linguistics properties of the LAD (language acquisition device)
A
- the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other types of sounds in the environment (babies are able to distinguish sound that are coming from people or other things)
- the ability to organise linguistics events into several categories which can be refined later on ( they know that there are different word categories)
- knowledge that only a specific kind of linguistic system is possible and that other types are not
- the ability to constantly evaluate the developing linguistic system. This allows us to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered (learns to make mistakes and correct themselves)
4
Q
what do pivot grammars consist of?
A
- early grammar of child language
- 2 separate word classes
- the first - pivot- it could pivot around a number of words in the second (open) class
- sentence = pivot word+open word
5
Q
in what way has the generative rule-governed model been challenged ?
A
- their belief that those generative rules were connected in a serial way, that is, with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain?
- the neurons were supposed to form multiple connections
- sentence consisting of a series of properties, is not considered to be generated by a series of rules, but rather a consequence of simultaneous interconnection of a multitude of brain cells
6
Q
How would you describe the language acquisition process?
A
- a baby could be put in any kind of environment, and he/she would acquire that language
- language is universally acquired in the same manner in any language and the deepest structure of language may be common to all languages (siddiqui, 2008)
7
Q
What is the main problem with generative rules?
A
- they only considered the forms of language and not the deeper level of language, they did not account for the functions of language either.
8
Q
report on Piaget’s, Slobin’s and Holzman’s models
A
- Piaget’s definition of overall development corresponds to the result of children’s interaction with their environment, adding that there is a complementary interaction between their developing cognitive capacities and their linguistic experience (knowledge of the world affects what they learn about language)
- Slobin proposes a language making capacity. according to this author, there are two types of principles: 1.) perceptual and storage filters and 2.) pattern makers. Semantic learning is dependent on cognitive learning and on cognitive development in all languages (designed to extract words (language) from input)
- Holzman proposes that “a reciprocal behavioural system operates between the language-developing infant-child and the competent language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role”. (relationship between babies, children and parents who talks to them/ puts them in the language world)
9
Q
which is the field of study within which SLA was born?
A
birth of second language acquisition as a field of study within applied linguistic
10
Q
what are the factors that resulted into a sudden development of SLA?
A
- the debt to first language acquisition studies
- Competing views on how language is acquired (nativism/ behaviourism)
- a growing disillusionment with approaches to the teaching of second language (people realised how they thought language was not effective, so they started thinking of different ways how to teach (instead of teaching how to learn)
11
Q
In what way was the Villiers and the Villiers’ study different?
A
- cross-sectional study of acquisition (specific part in time)
- Longitudinal (longer period of time, evolution can be seen)
- Use one or both depending on what you want to study.
12
Q
who challenged the behaviorist view of language acquisition?
A
Chosmsky challenged the Skinner’s verbal behaviour model
13
Q
What is ZISA project
A
Cross-sectional study of 45 adults and two-year longitudinal study of 12 adults learning German as second language (GSL)
14
Q
What are two key questions proposed by Ellis ?
A
- Is the developemtal sequence found in naturistic learners also found in instructed learners?
- is it possible to alter the natural development sequences through formal instruction?
- Naturalistic content refers to students who acquire the language in a natural way by being exposed to input and it is opposed to formal instruction in which students are explicitly taught in some type of school context
15
Q
Whose methodology did Tarone adopt to study style shifting?
A
- To study style shifting Tarone (1983) adopted Labov’s (1970) methodology.
- Accepts that the psycholinguistic mechanism responsible for style shifting is attention to speech.
16
Q
what is careful style?
A
- Careful style - according to Trone, arises when the learner pays most attention to his/her task.
17
Q
what has Ellis demonstrated
A
- Ellis demonstrated that when a learner has more planning time, he/ she performs much better
- that the result would be better, they have time to think about it
18
Q
what are the two types of variability according to Ellis ?
A
- the learner produces two forms of the same structure (one right and one wrong) in a haphazard way
- variability is systematic, in a way that it is possible to explain or even to predict when each variant will be used
- You don’t know when student uses which variability
19
Q
Explain the modifications caretakers make in their speech when addressing young children?
A
- half the speed of that used with other adults
- mothers tune the pitch, the intonation, the rhythm of their speech
- they use a higher ratio of content word, they also restrict the range of vocabulary items
- lower mean length of utterance
- prefer the use of simple sentences to subordinate and coordinate constructions
- here and now principle (talking about the thighs that are present in the moment)
- use of attention- getters (look! or hey!)
20
Q
what is foreigner talk? what are its characteristics?
A
- used by native speakers when they are addressing foreigners
- foreigners talk shares a lot of characteristics with caretaker talk
- omission of grammatical functors such as copula, articles, conjunctions, subject, pronouns and inflectional morphology
- expansion, as when ‘you’ is inserted before an imperative verb (for example, you give me money)
- replacement/ rearrangement, as when post-verbal negation is replaced by pre-verbal negation (for example, no want play)
21
Q
is teacher talk ungrammatical? what are its features?
A
- studies of ESL teacher talk report on absence of ungrammatical modifications
- shows other modifications like fewer false starts
- preference of full forms over contracted forms
- explicit markers of grammatical relations
- avoidance of idiomatic expressions and the use of lexical items with a wide coverage
22
Q
in interlanguage talk more grammatical than foreigner talk?
A
- interlanguage talk has been found to be less grammatical overall than foreigner talk
23
Q
how has research in SLA changed in recent years?
A
- in recent years the emphasis has shifted to the discourse level
- we now realise that formal approaches that emphasise the speech product of the learner overlook important functions of language
24
Q
why do Hatch and Long say that conversations are cooperative ventures?
A
- conversations offer excellent examples of the interactive and interpersonal nature of communication
- Porter (1986) concluded that while only 6 percent of foreign talk was faulty, 20 percent of interlanguage talk showed itself to be so.
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why is group work of considerable interest in teaching?
* it increases language practice opportunities
* it improves the quality of student talk
* it helps individualize instruction
* it promotes an affective climate
* it motivates students to learn
* students working in small groups produced a greater quantity of language and also better-quality language than in teacher - fronted classroom settings
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why do people think young people learn the foreign language better than older people
* common belief: younger learner usually performs better than older learners
* This assumption is corroborated by the critical period hypothesis
* Critical period hypothesis - states that there is a particular period of years in which students can learn the language in a natural and effortless way
* after that period, they claim, complete success in learning a language is impossible
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what kind of research shows that adults outperform children?
* Krashen et al. (1979), cited in Ellis (1994)
* adults are superior to children in rate of acquisition in terms of grammar
* older children learn structures faster than younger children
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is the acquisition of grammar the same as pronunciation ?
* grammar acquisition easier for adults
* pronunciation acquisition better for children
* they are different, they should be looked at like different aspects
* the older you are the more benefits there are for grammar learning
* harder for people to acquire native like pronunciation if you start learning the language later (only children can acquire a native accent in formal learning contexts)
* the process of acquisition in the case of L2 grammar is not significantly affected by age but that of acquisition of pronunciation may be
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what is the difference between the terms critical and sensitive period?
* completely successful acquisition can only be possible within a given period of a learner’s life - critical period
* acquisition is just easier within that period, but not impossible afterwards - sensitive period
30
Explain Cummin’s distinction between basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency?
* interpersonal communication skills - those skills required for oral fluency and the sociolinguistic appropriate use of language
* cognitive academic language proficiency - related to dimension of language proficiency that is linked to overall cognitive and academic language skills and can be equated with the proficiency factor related to intelligence
31
Can learning styles be changed?
* it is generally considered quite fixed and not easily changed. little and Singleton (1990) argue that we can help adult learners explore their own preferences and mould their learning approach to fit the requirements of a particular learning task
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7. What learning styles did learners prefer in Reid’s study?
* he distinguished four perceptual learning modalities
* visual learning (e.g. reading, studying charts)
* auditory learning (for instance, listening to lectures or to audio tapes)
* kinaesthetic learning (involving physical response)
* tactile learning (hands - on learning as in building models)
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1. What did Willing investigate? What type of learning styles did he identify?
* investigated the learning styles of 517 adult ESL learners in Australia
* he identified two major learning styles
cognitive and affective
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9. What is intrinsic motivation? What is extrinsic motivation? What is amotivation?
* intrinsic - refers to motivation to engage in an activity because it is thought to be enjoyable and satisfactory
* extrinsic - people who carry out actions to achieve some instrumental end, such as earning a reward of avoiding punishment
* amotivation - situation in which people see no relationship between their action and the consequences of those actions
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10. What three kinds of self- esteem can we distinguish?
* global self-esteem - individuals overall self-assessment at the highest level
* medial level - how individuals perceive themselves in various life contexts
* lowest level - the valuation one gives oneself on specific tasks (writing a paper, talking to someone)
36
1. What is meant by a theory?
* Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991:222) state that a theory is a more or less formal, more or less explicit, synthesis of what is ‘known’ at a given point in time about some natural phenomena, such as the factors involved in SLA.
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2. Theories of SLA range along a continuum from nativist through interactionist to environmentalist. In which way do they differ?
* Nativist theories - propose a relationship between innate mechanisms and knowledge.
* Environmentalist theories - knowledge is based on experience
* Interactionist - constitute the theories that propose that there exists a relationship or interaction among innate abilities and environmental factors.
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3. What do nativist theories consist of?
* nativist theories claim that we are born with innate device
* Some who claim that what is innate is the endowment which allows us to learn the language.
* Second group holds that innateness rests on a series of general cognitive notions and mechanisms that are used for all types of learning, including linguistic learning.
* Processes that the innate endowment includes both linguistic principles and general cognitive notions.
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4. What are the five major claims in Krashen’s theory?
* The acquisition-learning hypothesis - two separate but complementary systems that govern language learning. The acquired system is the result of applying the same rules and techniques we use when learning our mother tongue. The learned system operates in a conscious manner, and it normally relates to instructional settings of language learning.
* The natural order hypothesis - fixed order in which the rules of the second language are learned and they do not normally coincide with the way they are established in teaching syllabuses.
* The monitor Hypothesis - relationship between acquired and the learned system, former allows students to initiate utterances and the latter used for planning, editing and correcting. Can only occur when there is sufficient time, when focus is on form and when the learner knows the rule.
* The input hypothesis - one of the main tenets MT. Claims that the input received by students is vital for their learning of the language as sometimes it is the only linguistic source they receive. Any kind of input result in meaningful learning.
* The affective filter hypothesis - some motivational factors (anxiety, stress, demotivation) may provoke the raising of an affective filter that could prevent input from reaching the students. If these negative factors are mitigated, comprehensible input successfully reaches the students.
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5. What is the main shortcoming of the MT according to its critics?
* Mclaughlin- criticised distinction between learning and acquisition duo to the difficulty in testing his hypothesis. Facts seem reasonable and logical, but they cannot be scientifically tested.
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6. What are the general characteristics of environment theories of leaning?
* It is not innate factors, but nurture or experience which affect learning.
* Behaviourist theories are the best-known examples of these type of theories
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7. What does social distance consist of according to Schumann’s model?
* social distance - group phenomenon 8 factors - social dominance, integration pattern, enclosure, cohesiveness, size, cultural congruence, attitude and intended length of residence.
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8. What are the general characteristics of interactionist theories?
* Consider both innate and environmental factors
* higher number of variables needs to be considered when handling the data
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9. What is the main goal and characteristics of Givón’s theory?
* A unified theory of all types of language change which includes language acquisition
* the approach ‘functional-typological syntactic analysis’ is functionalist as it considers syntax and typological as it includes a diverse body of languages
* At first, the model was applied to the study of language change, but it later evolved to include second language acquisition.
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1. Define what a corpus is.
* It can be considered a large collection of language, usually stored electronically, normally used for the purposes of linguistic analysis through the use of concordance programmes.
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2. Name two of the several specific corpora available for educational or academic applications.
* Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE)
* Michigan Corpus of Upper- Level Student Papers (MICUSP)
* British Academic Spoken English Corpus (BASE)
* British Academic Written English Corpus (BAWE)
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3. Name three of the differences we find when comparing the traditional methods of analysing texts and the way this is done through CL.
* (text) read whole - (corpus) read fragmented
* (text) read horizontally - (corpus) read vertically
* (text) coherent communicative event - (corpus) not a coherent communicative event
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4. What are the five main tools that you can find in AntConc? Describe them briefly.
* Concordance tool - allows to see how words and phrases are commonly used in corpus text
* Clusters - allows to find common expressions in corpus
* Collocates - allows to analyse patterns in language
* Keyword List- shows which words are unusually frequent (or infrequent) in a particular corpus
49
5. What are three main applications of CL in the field of education?
* development of dictionaries
* development of grammar books
* development of textbooks
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6. What are the two applications of corpora in the field of language teaching? Explain briefly.
* Direct - 2 options - (teacher - corpus interaction), (learner-corpus interaction)
* Indirect - has an impact on syllabus design or teaching materials
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7. What is Data Driven Learning?
* DDL - learn by inductive acquisition of grammatical rules or regularities by means of the analysis of concordances yielded by corpora
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8. What are the four potential problems of DDL in particular and CL in general?
* the cost of the necessary hardware and software could be beyond the budgets of schools and universities. We also need to take into account that it takes time to prepare the materials to be used in DDL and to prepare the students to use the materials.
* Teachers would need some type of training in order to be capable of using DDL
* Students would need to spend more time and effort to adapt to DDL. Learners need to develop ‘corpus literacy’ Especially if they are deductive learners, they might have problems adapting to a more inductive approach of DDL.
The content of learning may also be a problem, as teachers need to make sure that the data they are using is appropriate for their particular learners and they need to take into account that DDL might not be suitable for all language questions.
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1. What factors contributed to the rejection of the grammar translation method?
- to learn the language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study
- students had to learn lists of nouns with their respective cases, verb declensions and a large list of vocabulary items.
- often frustrating for young students who were asked to learn by rote without understanding what it was they were learning.
- did not cater for oral proficiency
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2. In the Direct method, was the class conducted in the foreign language? How was grammar thought? How was language introduced?
- understood that they need to speak the languages not just read
- classes in the target languages, mother tongue avoided as much as can
- learning of grammar and use of translation was also avoided
- emphasis on everyday vocabulary and sentences
- vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures while abstract vocabulary was thought by association of ideas.
- use of objects commonly found in a classroom of the period to teach the first objects and colours.
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3. What is the origin of the CA? What authors were influential in the CA?
- dominant approach to language teaching nowadays
- began to dominate the teaching of English by the late 60’s early 70’s. Influenced by principles of previous methods such as the emphasis on the target language
- criticised by Michael Swan
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who created the silent way
Caleb GAttegno (1963) created the Silent way
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is silence important in this method ?
the teacher is supposed to be silent as much as possible
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6. Who developed Suggestopedia? What are its main characteristics?
- Lozanov’s method (1975)
- human brain could process great quantities of material given the right condition for learning
- state of relaxation, music
- He claims that about 200 to 240 new words may be introduced each lesson.
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7. What is the total Physical Response? Who developed it?
- James Asher (1966)
- TPR is a method in language teaching which i based on the coordination of speech and action
- designed to be less stressful than other methods as the students can remain silent for several lessons before being asked to speak - normally between 10 to 20 hours into the course.
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8. Who are the creators of the Natural Approach? To what SLA theory do the authors related the NA?
- Krashen’s “Monitor Model” of second language development This approach was one of the first to be based on a theory of language (Richards and Rodgers 1987:18)
- According to Richards and Schmidt (2010:388) the teaching principles of this approach emphasize natural communication over formal grammar study and the use of the target language
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what is implied from Krashens five hypotheses?
they are not required to speak until they feel ready. Reading and not listening first
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1. According to the author, do adults have the same facility to acquire language as children?
* adults have a harder time learning language than children
* struggle with general failure - it is really difficult to acquire fluent L2, impossible to learn it the same level as your L1
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do researchers think that child and adult language acquisition is similar?
researchers think that child and adult acquisition is similar
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3. What does general failure mean?
* That adult foreign language learning is not guaranteed. complete success is extremely rare
* It is very difficult to acquire fluent L2, it will never be the same level as your L1
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4. What is your goal in learning English?
* People learn languages for different goals and these goals also play a part in language learning
* Some try to sound like a native speaker, others are proud of being foreigners. There are people who still have their accent after living somewhere for a long time e.g. Charles Boyer (still has his French accent, plays only roles of French people)
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5. What is the Charles Boyer phenomenon?
* Charles Boyer is a French actor that has been living in an English-speaking country for a long time and is proud of his foreignness. After living for such a long time in an English-speaking country he still has his accent and that is why he only plays roles of a French person.
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6. What is fossilization?
* Fossilization - a level you reach in learning your L2 and it is really difficult to pass this level, so you are just stuck in this level of your language learning journey.
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7. What does the term indeterminate intuitions refer to ?
* Indeterminate intuitions - when a person acquires their L1 they acquire the grammar naturally (grammatical judgements). There are things that help us learn the L2, but not as clear as L1
* Indeterminate intuition - helps you learn the grammar of your L2
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8. Is the effect if instruction easy to prove?
* Not always, it is actually quite hard to prove something like this.
* There are cases where that can easily be seen like the whole class does bad, but does good with another teacher
* Hawthorne effect - You know you are being tested/ tend to do better than you are. (this is also a reason why it is hard to prove something like this)
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9. What is negative evidence?
* Negative evidence - sometimes can be useful, helpful for your L2, but ot L1
* When a person is acquiring their L1 there is no reason to say what is right and what is wrong, they correct themselves
* After some time, you will see that you are saying/ writing something wrong and will correct yourself.
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10. Are affective factors relevant in SLA?
* When a child is learning their L1 there are no affective factors like their motivation etc.
* But when a person is learning their L2 there are many factors that influence the learning
* So, these factors (psychology, motivation etc.) are important for L2 but not relevant for L1
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11. Why do we say that FL learners know too much?
* Sometimes Foreign learners try to find similar things in L2 from their L1.
* Sometimes think there is a universal grammar that can be applied to both languages
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12. Why does the author consider that interference theory is not acceptable?
* Interference theory - Transfer knowledge from L1 to L2, this interference will cause problems for learning L2
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13. Why is the input theory not acceptable?
* exposing bad input would be the problem of your lack of success.
* Input theory cannot be acceptable
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14. Do children have affect?
* children learn no matter what
* adults need other aspects for L2
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15. What has been found out about the role of affect in FLA?
* The affect learning does not affect the first language acquisition; you will acquire the language either way
* when learning the first language we are blank pages, but when learning the second language we already have the basis
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16. According to the PSC approach (Problem-Solving Cognitive System), who are the best learners?
* The Problem-solving cognitive system helps you learn language grammar etc.
* This usually happens around puberty
* So, the best learners are teenagers, because they use both LSC and PSC at one point in their language learning
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17. What does the timing of the system suggest?
* When teenager stops using LSC and only uses PSC (don’t know when this change happens)
* Teenagers use both for some time (it helps them learn better) They are better prepared to learn languages then most people
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1. What is uptake?
* used to describe learners' responses to the provision of feedback after either an erroneous utterance or a query about a linguistic item within the context of meaning- focused language activities.
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2. What is form-focused instruction?
* involves preplanned attempts to present discrete linguistic items or a focus on form, they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication.
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3. What is Chaudron’s definition of uptake? And Lyster and Ranta’s?
* Chaudron (1977), ‘‘effectiveness of any type of corrective reaction would be a frequency count of the students’ correct responses following each type’’
* Lyster and Ranta (1997), defined uptake as ‘‘a student’s utterance that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback and that constitutes a reaction in some way to the teacher’s intention to draw attention to some aspect of the student’s initial utterance’’
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4. Do students always have the chance to produce uptake?
* uptake is an optional student move ‘‘that occurs where learners have demonstrated a gap in their knowledge (e.g., by making an error, or by asking a question)’
* Students may opt not to produce uptake, even if there is the opportunity for them to do so.
* there also may not be a chance for the students to produce uptake
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5. How do Lyster and Ranta categorize uptake? And Ellis et al.?
* Lyster and Ranta - addressed this issue by categorizing uptake as repair and needs-repair, depending on whether students corrected, in their uptake, the linguistic errors that led to it.
* Ellis et al. - used terms successful and unsuccessful uptake, include pre-emptive as well reactive focus on form.
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6. According to Lyster, what is one way I which uptake may facilitate acquisition? What is the other important aspect of uptake?
* Lyster - One way in which uptake may facilitate acquisition is by ‘‘providing opportunities for learners to proceduralized target language knowledge already internalized in declarative form’’
* producing a correct uptake may help learners automatize their L2 production and lead to increased fluency
* Another important aspect of uptake relates to the role of output in L2 learning. That is to say, uptake constitutes one type of ‘‘pushed output’
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7. What was the overall rate of uptake occurrence in the observed lessons?
* 73% occurrence of uptake, which is comparable to the 74% rate he found in Ellis
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8. Which types of characteristics of the learning contexts should be investigated?
* The results pertaining to these last three variables suggest that characteristics of incidental focus on form that are more salient and noticeable contribute to the production of (successful) uptake.
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9. What was the average level of successful uptake in the study?
* successful 66.1% of the time
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10. What are the three variables that promote uptake?
* dependent
* independent
* predictor
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11. What are the six variables that promote successful uptake?
* Teacher lets students correct themselves instead of giving answers (page 179)
* were joined by source, type, and emphasis to constitute the best predictive model for successful uptake.
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12. Were reactive or student- initiated FFEs the ones that predicted successful uptake?
* while both reactive and student-initiated FFEs predicted uptake, reactive FFEs were stronger predictors of successful uptake
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13. What type of response was most likely to produce uptake and successful uptake?
* The most effective were elicitations
* recasts were the most frequent response move in date (just repeat the answer just correctly)
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14. What is the most effective treatment in producing uptake in Lyster and Ranta’s study?
* Immediate - treating the problem right away
* delayed - dealing with the problem later on
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15. Does this study support the importance of immediate FFE’s ?
* It just supports FFEs
* it is not how much you correct and how hard, but how you correct them
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1. What ate the commonly observed features of the simplified variety of NS’s language reported by most researchers?
* shooter utterances
* lower syntactic complexity
* avoidance of low frequency lexical items, idiomatic expressions
some aspects reflect caretaker speech
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2. What are the conditions in which speech to NNs, or foreign talk is ungrammatical?
* Articles, copula, other inflectional morphology deleted
* non-native speaker has low or no proficiency in the language of communication
* Native speaker perceives themselves as having higher status
* the native speaker has prior foreigner talk experience but of limited kind
* conversion spontaneous rather than controlled
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3. Why is research on speech modified for NNs important?
* to make input comprehensible
* interest on speech modified for non-native speakers has largely been due the claims that linguistic input (understood by learner) is the primary data for L2 acquisition
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4. Which type of adjustments made by NSs is more important for providing comprehensible input?
* changing the interactional structure of conversation
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5. What does input refer to?
* input- refers to the linguistic forms (morphemes, words, utterances) the streams of speech in the air, directed at the non-native speaker.
* e.g.: What’s the boy’s name? - The boy, what’s his name?
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what is the analysis of interaction?
examines conversational functions rather than just words
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7. How were the dyads distributed in the study?
48 NSs and 16 NNSs formed 32 dyads (16 NS-NS, 16 NS-NNS).
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8. Had previous findings on input modifications to NNSs been consistent?
* previous studies were inconsistent due to different study conditions
* this study controlled for factors like the setting and speaker relationships
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9. What are the hypotheses of the study?
* NSs modify both their speech and interaction
* interactional modifications are more important than just input changes
* modifications occur even when syntax remains unchanged
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10. What are the reasons why NSs appear to modify interaction?
* to avoid conversational trouble
* to repair discourse when trouble occurs
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11. What are the differences between the two types and what are their names?
* Strategies (avoiding trouble) (gives the NNS easier response choices)
* Tactics (repairing trouble) (repetition used to clarify an unclean response)
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12. What strategies does Long propose?
* Relinquish topic-control
* Select salient topic
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13. What tactics does he name?
* Requesting clarification (“Pardon?” (when native speaker doesn’t understand)
* Confirming my own comprehension (“ten clock?” (checking if the answer was correctly understood)
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14. What are the strategies and tactics that he offers?
* Strategies: choosing easy topics, checking comprehension
* Tactics: repeating utterances, asking for clarification
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15. What do we use the 15 devices described by Long for?
* to modify interaction and ensure comprehensible input
* to prevent and repair misunderstandings
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16. Are the modifications of interaction that NSs make common to all speakers?
* many native speakers modify speech, but frequency depends on prior experience
* it depends on a lot of factors; some use one others something different
