Exam 2 Flashcards
(208 cards)
1
Q
Functions of the Bone
A
support, protection, allow movement/lever system, storage depot for Ca and P salts, hematopoiesis
2
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Hematopoiesis
A
formation of blood cells involved multipotent stem cells
3
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Classes of Bones
A
long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones
4
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Long Bones
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longer than they are wide
5
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Short Bones
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Same size in width and length
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Irregular bones
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bones that we cannot describe the shape of
7
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Sesamoid Bones
A
form entirely of a tendon
8
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Structures of a long bone
A
Diaphysis, metaphysis, epiphysis, marrow cavity
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Diaphysis
A
shaft of the bone
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Metaphysis
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neck of bone (bone ends to widen)
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Epiphysis
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ends of the bones and contain spongy bones which has empty spaces that are red bone marrow
12
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Red bone marrow
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active type of bone marrow and where hematopoiesis occurs
13
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Yellow bone marrow
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inactive type of bone marrow which is mostly fat and fill the narrow part of long bones called the medullary cavity
14
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Compact bone
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hard parts of bone and made up of osteons with concentric layers of lamellae and found in diaphysis or either side of flat bones
15
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Spongy bone
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lattice work of bone and does not contain osteons or blood vessels and has more space (medullary cavity)
16
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Periosteum
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the wrapping of our bone and is made up of dense irregular connective tissue and considered active part of bone (osteoblasts and osteoclasts are here)
17
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Perforating fibers
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help attach periosteum to compact bone (collagen fibers do by providing strength in many directions)
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Fibers of tendons
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dense regular connective tissue that connect muscle to bone
19
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Endosteum
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Lines the medullary cavity and contains many osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts and osteoblasts (more active than periosteum)
20
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Epiphyseal plate
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metaphysis and is made of the hyaline cartilage (in kids)
21
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Epiphyseal line
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metaphysis in an adult so hyaline cartilage disappears
22
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Articular cartilage
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is made of hyaline cartilage and coats the ends of the long bones that articulate with other bones (very smooth and reduces friction), lot of collagen so strong
23
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Bone is a dynamic tissue
A
so very vascularized (in communication with other systems in the body)
24
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Volkmann’s canals
A
bring blood into the central canal then the osteons to the osteocytes for nutrients
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Ossification
bone formation (occurs in fetal skeleton)
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Types of bone formation
Intramembranous and endochondral
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Mesenchyme
fetal connective tissues that has a lot of blood vessels coming through
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Intramembranous ossification
Osteoblasts starts to secret bone matrix and start to calcify and harden as calcium salts are added and trap some osteoblasts and continues to secretes the osteoid
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Fontanelles
large areas of dense connective tissues in fetal skull and provide flexibility during birth and growth (gone by age 2 by sutures)
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Endochondral ossification in fetal
Starts with bone already patterned by hyaline cartilage and osseous tissue begins to replace the hyaline cartilage. Chondrocytes begin to enlarge and die without nutrients. Chondroblasts will become osteoblasts. The spaces then begin to build blood vessels and become primary ossification center. Then secondary ossification center is created then the osteoblasts are trapped and mature into osteocytes. Much of the hyaline cartilage is replace by bone and spongy bone is created
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Primary ossification center
secreted bony matrix where most of the osteoblasts are
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Secondary ossification center
more blood vessels invade bringing osteoprogenitor cells that become osteoblasts and lay down more bone matrix
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Appositional growth
can occur in children and adults, increase in width, compact bone thickens and strengthens long bone with layers of circumferential lamellae
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Bone remodeling
occurs in response to demand on bones
| ex: weight training (stronger) or prolonged bed rest (weaker)
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Wolffe's Law
bones remodel in response to compressive force
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PTH
stimulates osteoclasts so calcium in body increases
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Calcitonin
inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblasts so calcium in body decreases
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Osteoporosis
most common in aging and post menopause females (lack of estrogen), less bone density, results in compression fractures in vertebrae
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Steps in bone repair
hematoma, soft callus, bony callus, remodeling
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fibrocartilage callus
occurs during internal part of break after hematoma by active cells in endosteum
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Hematoma
blood clot in bone
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Closed fracture
not penetrated the skin
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Open fracture
has broken through the skin and may cause an infection
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Greenstick fracture
common in children, happen when fracture only goes halfway through bone
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Articulation
meeting place of 2 or more bones
| ex: shoulder joint connects humerus to scapula
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Range of motion
refers to the normal extent of mobility for a specific joint movement (in degrees)
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Degrees of freedom
the number of axes at which movement in a joint occurs
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Relationship between mobility and stability
inverse
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Synarthrosis
immovable
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Amphiarthrosis
slightly movable
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Diarthrosis
freely movable
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Classification of joints by structure
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
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Flexion
typically bends the joint, decreasing the angle between bones
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Extension
typically straightens the joint, increasing angle between bones
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Dorsiflexion
bring the foot towards the body
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Plantarflexion
bring the foot away from the body
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Abduction
movement away from the midline
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Adduction
movement toward the midline
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Circumduction
combines forward and backward movement with medial and lateral movement in a cone-like shape
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Rotation
movement around a longitudinal axis of a moving segment
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Pronation
radius rotates over ulna
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Supination
radius and ulna are parallel
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Inversion
take sole of foot and rotate it to point inward
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Eversion
take sole of foot and rotate it to point outward
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Elevation
moves upward
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Depression
moves downward
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Protraction
push forward
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Retraction
pull backward
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Opposition
movement where any two fingers (one of them is mainly the thumb) come together "pinching"
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Types of fibrous joints
suture, syndesmosis, gomphosis
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Types of cartilaginous joints
synchondrosis, symphysis
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Types of synovial joints
uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, non axial
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Sutures
connects bones of the skull, bond together by extremely short and tight fibers, synarthrosis
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Syndesmosis
longer fibers than suture but still short, bones connected by interosseous ligament (allows for slight shift or give movement)
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Synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage connects bones or part of bones, immovable,
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Symphysis
fibrocartilage disc unites bone, allows for slight movement
| ex: pubic symphysis, joints connecting vertebral bodies
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Synovial
characterized by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid, freely movable joints, most commonly seen in appendicular skeleton, all share common anatomy
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Synovial membrane
loose connective tissue that is vascularized and secretes synovial fluid
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Joint capsule
dense irregular connective tissue that is continuous to the periosteum
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purpose of synovial fluid
cushion, lubricate, nourish
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Bursa
pillows of synovial fluid
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Tendon sheath
sleeve filled with synovial fluid
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Uniaxial joints
1 axis of rotation
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Types of uniaxial joints
hinge joints, pivot joints
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Hinge joints
concave surface articulating with a convex surface
| ex: elbow
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Pivot joints
cylinder shape rotates within ring of bone or ligament
| ex: axis and atlas of vertebra
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Biaxial
2 pairs of rotation
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Condyloid joints
ovoid-shaped process articulate with a shallow cavity
| ex: wrist
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Saddle joints
distinctly shaped articulating surfaces
| ex: first metacarpals
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Types of biaxial joints
condyloid joints, saddle joints
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Triaxial joints
3 axes of rotation
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Types of triaxial joints
ball and socket joints
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Ball and socket joints
spherical surface articulating with a cup-shaped socket
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Nonaxial joints
no identifiable axis of rotation, slight gliding movements
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Types of nonaxial joints
gliding joints
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Gliding joints
flat or nearly flat articular surfaces that allow gliding in any direction
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Amphipathic
having the characteristic of being nonpolar and polar
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Peripheral proteins
attach to either inner or outer face of membrane
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Integral proteins
protrude partly or all the way across membrane, include channel proteins and carrier proteins
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Plasma membrane functions
physical barrier, exchange, communication, attachment
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Paracellular
between cells
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Transcellular
through cells
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Passive Transport
does not require energy from the cell, materials move from higher concentration to lower concentration
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Active Transport
requires energy, molecules are moved from lower concentration to higher concentration
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Types of passive transport
simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, bulk filration
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Brownian motion
random movements of molecules in all directions, non-linear
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Properties of simple diffusion
passive process, net movement of high to low concentration, requires a concentration gradient, rapid over short distances, directly related to temperature, inversely related to molecular size, in open system or across a partition
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Concentration gradient
the absolute difference in solute concentration between two places
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Osmosis
the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, the concentration of water is lowered by the addition of solutes
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Osmolarity
the number of particles in solution
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Hypertonic solution
increase in volume of solute outside the cell so water moves out of cell (cell shrinks)
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Hypotonic solution
higher volume of solute inside the cell so water moves into the cell (cell swells)
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Isotonic solution
no change in cell volume
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Osmotic force
pressure created by diffusion of water
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Hydrostatic force
force that is created by fluid kept under pressure
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Facilitated diffusion
solute requires the help of an integral protein to pass through the plasma membrane
ex: glucose
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Bulk filtration
not due to random motion of individual molecules, solute follows the pressure gradient
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Types of ion gating mechanisms
voltage-gated, ligand-gated, mechanosensitive
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Channelopathies
diseases and disorders that are result of ion channel dysfunction
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Occlusion state
a state that the solute is not accessible either inside or outside
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Primary active transport
directly consumes ATP
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Secondary active transport
utilizes energy stored in a pre-existing concentration gradient
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Axial skeleton
head, vertebral column includes ribs and sternum
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Temporal Mandibular joint (TMJ)
demonstrated by yawning, complex
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Bones involved in TMJ
temporal (mandibular fossa) and mandible (mandibular condyles), combined hinge and gliding joint, includes a cushioning disk (made of fibrocartilage)
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Muscles involved in TMJ
Digastric (opens jaws), Temporalis and Masseter (closes jaw), Pterygoids (lateral excursion, protrusion, depression/elevation of mandible)
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Function of vertebral column
support weight of head and trunk, protect spinal cord
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How many bones are in the vertebral column?
26 bones
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Sections of the vertebral column and the number of bones in each
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, sacrum (5 fused), coccyx (4 fused)
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movements of the vertebral column
flexion/extension, lateral flexion, circumduction, rotation
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What is the intervertebral disk made out of?
outer annulus fibrosus, inner nucleus pulposis
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Herniated (slipped) disc
tear in annulus fibrosus allows protrusion of nucleus pulposis, pressed on the spinal nerve which causes pain
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Atlanto-axial joint
first cervical vertebra (C1) is called atlas and has no body, second cervical vertebra (C2) is called axis and contains dens, produce the "no-no" movement (pivot joint)
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Atlanto-occipital joint
atlas superior facets articulate with occipital condyles, makes a double condyloid joint
135
Functions of atlanto-occipital joint
allows for extended range of motion for flexion/extension of head on the neck, makes the "yes" movement
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Muscles of the intervertebral joints
sternocleidomastoid (one side allows us to oblique the skull while both sides do forward flexion), rectus abdominus (flexes vertebral column), erector spinae (extend vertebral column)
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What are the bones of the thorax?
sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebra
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Functions of the thorax
protection of heart and lungs, role of gliding movements for breathing
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Costovertebral joints
head of rib with vertebral body, tubercle of rib with transverse process, all are gliding joints
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Postural curves
primary curves, secondary curves
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Primary curves
convex posterior, thoracic and sacral
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Secondary curves
convex anterior, cervical and lumbar
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What is the curve of a newborn?
"C" shaped, no secondary curves, primary curves shaped as thoracic and sacral supposed to be
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When do the secondary curves start to appear?
cervical - as baby gains head control and lumbar - when infant learn to sit/stand
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The importance of postural curves
curves balance the spine and makes so little muscular energy is required to maintain upright position
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What are the abnormal postural curves?
kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis
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Kyphosis
exaggerated thoracic curve, common in elderly women with osteoporosis
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Lordosis
exaggerated lumbar curve, common in pregnancy or weight gain in same area
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Scoliosis
lateral curvature, C- or S- shaped
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Agonist or Prime mover
directly performs the desires movement, first muscle recruited for a particular movement
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Antagonist
opposes the movement, performs opposite action
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Synergist
recruited to assist for extra strength, or to stabilize joint and allow movement
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Function of Pectoral girdle
connects upper extremity to axial skeleton
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Bones of pectoral girdle
clavicle, manubrium sternum, scapula
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Articulations of pectoral girdle
sternoclavicular (manubrium - clavicle and is gliding joint), acromioclavicular (clavicle -acromion of scapula and is gliding joint)
these two joints allow for elevation and depression of the scapula
156
Scapular muscles
upper trapezius - elevates scapula
lower trapezius - depresses scapula
middle of trapezius - produce retraction of scapula
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Glenohumeral joint
most freely moveable joint, ball and socket joint
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Bones of glenohumeral joint
scapula - glenoid fossa and humerus - head
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Deltoid - posterior
abduct, extend
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Latissimus dorsi
extend, adduct
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Supraspinatus
abduction
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Infraspinatus
external rotation
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Teres minor
external rotation
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Triceps brachii
extend
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Deltoid - anterior
flex
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Pectoralis major
flex, adduct, and internally rotate
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Subscapularis
internal rotation
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Biceps brachii
flex
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Bones of the elbow joint
humerus, ulna, and radius
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Movements of the elbow
flexion-extension at humero-ulnar hinge joint
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Muscles of the elbow
brachialis - flex
brachioradialis - flex
biceps brachii - flex
triceps brachii - extend
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What is the prime mover of elbow joint flexion?
brachialis
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What is the syngerist of elbow joint flexion?
biceps
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What is the antagonist of elbow joint flexion?
triceps
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Why are the biceps not the prime mover for elbow joint flexion?
biceps are a powerful supinator
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Pronator teres
pronate
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Bones of the wrist
radius, ulna, carpals
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Articulation of the wrist joint
radiocarpal - true wrist = condyloid (biaxial) synovial joint
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Muscles of the wrist
flexors carpi ulnas and radialis - flexion
extensor carpi ulnas and radialis - extension
adduction - ulnar flexor and ulnar extensor
abduction - radial flexor and radial extensor
combine all four for circumduction
180
What is the os coxa?
ilium, ischium, pubis
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Acetabulum
deep depression that forms the hip articulation with the femur
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Articulations of the pelvic girdle
sacroiliac - ilium to sacrum - gliding, pubic symphysis - symphysis, lumbosacral - L5 and sacrum - symphysis and gliding
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Muscles of the pelvis girdle
rectus abdominus - flexion
erector spinae - extension
quadratus lumborum - lateral tilts (attaches to ilium)
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Bones of the hip joint
head of the femur articulates with deep socket (acetabulum), ball and socket joint
185
Movements of hip
flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, internal and external rotation
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Psoas major
flex
187
Gluteus medius
abduct, internal rotation
188
Gluteus maximus
extend, external rotation
189
Adductors
adduct
190
Gluteus minimus
abduct, internal rotation
191
Rectus femoris for hip
one of the quadriceps, flex
192
Hamstrings for hip
Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris (all 3 extend)
193
Bones of the knee joint
femur - femoral condyles, tibia - tibial condyles, patella
194
Articulations of the knee joint
Double condyloid joint because the medial condyles of the femur and tibia articulate with each other while the lateral condyles of the femur and tibia articulate with each other
Patellar articulation
195
Movements of the knee joint
flexion/extension (more than simple hinge and soft tissue needed for stability)
196
Menisci
fibrocartilage pads that provide cushion between the condyloid of each joint
197
Cruciate ligament (ACL and PCL)
prevent the tibia from completely rolling off from the femur as it glides through flexion and extension
198
Collateral ligaments
provides stability in lateral motion so prevent the tibia from rolling side to side
199
Bursae
synovial pillows that help to reduce friction during motion of synovial joints
200
Fat pads
provides additional cushion
201
ACL tears
sprain or tear of the ACL by direct blow to the knee, strong muscle contraction due to sudden change of direction while running but can be repaired surgically
202
Patellar ligament
attaches to patella from tibia
203
Functions of the patella
protection and mechanical advantage for knee extension
204
Hamstrings for knee
all flex
205
Gastrocnemius
flex
206
Quadriceps for knee
rectus femoris, vasti lateralis, vasti medialis, vasti intermedius - all extend
207
Sartorius for hip
flex, abduct, external rotation
208
Sartorius for knee
flex
