Exam 2 Flashcards
(322 cards)
1
Q
How do we (humans) learn?
A
Associative learning
2
Q
What is associative learning?
A
learning that two events occur together
3
Q
What is associative learning used heavily in?
A
Advertising
4
Q
What is an example of associative learning in advertising?
A
athlete + product = favorable opinion of athlete leads to favorable opinion of product
5
Q
What are two types of associative learning?
A
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
6
Q
What does conditioning mean?
A
learning
7
Q
What do advertisers try to do?
A
have you know the product or brand (including sound branding), associate brand name/product with something positive (something in the commercial), highlight some positive attribute of the product/brand (actual product)
8
Q
Who is Ivan Pavlov?
A
Russian physician/neurophysiologist, nobel prize winner, studied digestive secretions (saliva), dogs salivating when a bell rings
9
Q
What is neutral stimulus?
A
any stimulus that does not produce a response Ex: the bell ringing does nothing to the dogs without unconditioned stimulus
10
Q
What is unconditioned stimulus?
A
stimulus that unconditionally - automatically and naturally - triggers a response
11
Q
What is conditioned stimulus?
A
Neutral stimulus becomes this following its pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. After association with a US, this triggers a conditioned response
12
Q
What is conditioned response?
A
learned response to conditioned stimulus
12
Q
What is conditioned response?
A
learned response to conditioned stimulus
12
Q
What is conditioned response?
A
learned response to conditioned stimulus
13
Q
What is conditioned response?
A
learned response to conditioned stimulus
14
Q
What is unconditioned response?
A
occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
15
Q
Name what each part of Pavlov’s dog experiment would fall under? (ie. Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response)
A
Meat (US) -> Salivation (UR), Bell Ringing (NS) -> nothing, Sound (NS) + Meat (US) = Sound (CS) -> Salivation (CR)
16
Q
What was the case of Little Albert?
A
Done by John Watson, he exposed a baby to a variety of animals and masks, he then showed the same objects to the baby but now with a loud bang. After this when shown the same objects with no loud sound, the baby still cried and was fearful.
17
Q
Who was John Watson?
A
the greatest proponent of behaviorism in his day, focus on observable behavior, emphasis on learning rather than thinking innate tendencies (genetics) in determining personality and behavior
18
Q
What is generalization?
A
Stimuli similar to the CS will elicit a similar response
19
Q
What is discrimination?
A
learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal (precede) the US
20
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
involves voluntary behaviors, intentional behaviors. Behavior operates (acts) on environment, producing rewards or punishments (may be known as operant behavior)
21
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Response occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus. (may be known as respondent behavior)
22
Q
What is an example of operant conditioning?
A
dog shaking hand (behavior) produces treat (consequence)
23
What is an example of classical conditioning?
With Pavlov's dogs, tone (stimulus) -> salivation (response)
24
What is positive reinforcement?
Add a desirable stimulus
25
What is negative reinforcement?
remove an aversive stimulus
26
What is an example of positive reinforcement?
Dog does trick (behavior) produces dog getting treat (consequence)
27
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
taking aspirin (behavior) headache goes away (consequence)
28
What is positive punishment?
Administer an aversive stimulus
29
What is negative punishment?
withdraw a desirable stimulus
30
What is an example of positive punishment?
dog peeing in house (behavior) leads to spraying them with water bottle
31
What is an example of negative punishment?
Child does something bad (behavior) take away play time (consequence)
32
How do you tell all of the positive/negative reinforcement/punishment apart?
Positive/negative = administering a consequence or taking away a consequence
Reinforcement/punishment = consequence is trying to increase the behavior or decrease it
33
What is the Skinner Box (operant chamber)?
chamber with a bar or disk that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer. contains devices to record responses. (mouse learned to press bar to get food)
34
What is shaping (successive approximations)?
Procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards desired goal. Working up to desired goal slowly
35
What are examples of shaping?
Used to get pigeons to play basketball, kids to develop good manners, people to exercise, students to study
36
What are superstitions?
non-contingent reinforcement. It is seen in both people and animals. skinner studied this
37
What is continuous reinforcement?
reinforcing the desired behavior each time it occurs
38
What are the schedules of reinforcement?
Continous reinforcement, partial reinforcement (variable ratio, fixed ratio, variable interval, fixed interval)
39
What are the subcategories of partial reinforcement?
variable ratio, fixed ratio, variable interval, fixed interval
40
What is partial reinforcement?
reinforcing behavior only part of the time, results in slower acquisition, greater resistance to extinction
41
What is fixed ratio?
reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses, the faster you respond the more rewards you get (very high rate of responding)
42
What is variable ratio?
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
43
What is the key to ratio schedules of reinforcement?
number of responses
44
What is an example of fixed ratio?
coffee shop gives you a free drink every 10 cups purchased
45
What is an example of variable ratio?
slot machines
46
What is fixed interval?
reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near
47
What is variable interval?
reinforces a response at unpredictable amount of time intervals. produces slow, steady responding
48
What is the key to interval schedules of reinforcement?
the amount of time that passes is the key
49
What is an example of fixed interval?
checking cookies in oven or jello in refrigerator
50
What is an example of variable interval?
pop quizzes, checking e-mail
51
What does Skinner believe?
Internal factors do no determine an animal's behavior. External factors are responsible for an animal's behavior (Kinner argues that this is true of humans too). This means studying, exercising, kindness, aggression, and all human behavior are products of reinforcement or punishment.
52
What are cognitive factors in learning?
Latent learning (implicit learning) and Intrinsic motivation
53
What is latent learning?
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Cognitive map (mental representation of the layout of one's environment). Tells us that reinforcement is not needed
54
What is Intrinsic motivation?
desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
55
What are some examples of intrinsic motivation?
enjoyment, interest, learning, self-expression, challenge
56
What are some reasons for intrinsic motivation? (desires to perform the behavior)
Autonomy (control over behavior), competence/mastery, meaning/purpose
57
What is extrinsic behavior?
the opposite of intrinsic behavior (desire to perform a behavior for external rewards or to avoid punishment).
58
Can extrinsic behavior hurt intrinsic behavior?
Yes, it can make the behavior less likely. This is due to the overjustification effect (reward for things that do not need to be rewarded)
59
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic?
intrinsic is internal enjoyment and extrinsic is external motivation
60
What is observational learning?
learning by observing others
61
What is prosocial behavior?
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. can be modeled - especially effective if the model's words and behaviors are consistent; behavior that is intended to help other people
62
What is classical (Pavlovian) conditioning (respondent conditioning) ?
learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
63
What is acquisition?
the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are prepared
64
What is extinction?
the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
65
What is spontaneous recovery of CR?
the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning
66
What did the case of John Watson and Little Albert prove?
Most fears are developed through classical conditioning
67
How are phobias developed?
through classical conditioning
68
Give an example of a phobia being developed through classical conditioning
the dentist is a NS, If you go to the dentist and have one painful experience US, then that creates the CS (the dentist still). The fear created from the painful experience is the UR. Seeing/going to a dentist appointment now is the CR because of the fear created from the one experience.
69
What is Thorndike's Law of effect?
states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
70
What is learned helplessness?
An organism's learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes
71
What are examples of learned helplessness?
A person of domestic violence not trying to escape their abuser, students failing school end up dropping out.
72
Who identified learned helplessness?
Martin Seligman
73
What is a primary reinforcer?
a reinforcer that is innately satisfying; a primary reinforcer does not require any learning on the organisms part to make it pleasurable
74
What is a secondary reinforcer?
A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer
75
What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?
Getting an A on a test, we learned throughout our lives these things are good.
76
What are the four main processes of observational learning?
attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement
77
What is attention?
The first process of observational learning. attending to what the model is saying or doing
78
What is retention?
The second process of observational learning. One must hold the information, learned in attention, in memory. Must encode the information and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it.
79
What is motor reproduction?
The third process of observational learning. the process of imitating the models actions.
80
What is reinforcement/punishment?
The final process of observational learning. the model's behavior is followed by a consequence. This can be vicarious reinforcement or vicarious reinforcement.
81
What is vicarious reinforcement?
a reward for the model's behavior will increase the chances the observer will repeat the action
82
What is vicarious punishment?
the model's behavior is punished which makes the behavior less likely to be repeated
83
What is automatic encoding?
When our brain automatically encodes certain things. knowing/remembering stuff
84
What is effortful encoding?
When you work to get your brain to remember something. Studying
85
Does our brain automatically or effortfully encode more?
effortful encoding
86
What are the different types of attention?
Selective, divided, and sustained attention
87
What is selective attention?
Purposive focus; you are choosing to pay attention to a lecture
88
What is divided attention?
multitasking
89
What is sustained attention?
Vigilance, we are always a little bit aware of our surroundings
90
Is handwriting or taking notes on a laptop better?
Handwritten is better
91
Why is handwriting better than taking note on a laptop?
slower writing leads to more meaningful processing than typing because students must put the material in their own words (because they can't write everything the teacher is saying)
92
When listening to a lecture should you do active or passive processing?
active
93
Who came up with the Levels of Processing Theory and when?
Craik and Lockhart, 1972
94
What are the levels of processing?
shallow, intermediate, deep
95
What is always the goal level of processing?
deep
96
What is shallow processing?
physical and perceptual features are analyzed. The lines, angles, and contour that make up physical appearance of an object, such as a car, are detected
97
What is intermediate processing?
stimulus is recognized and labeled. The object is recognized as a car/noticing the brand of the car
98
What is deep processing?
Semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used. Recognizing your aunt has the same car.
99
What is the levels of processing theory?
when we process information more deeply, we tend to remember it better
100
What is elaboration?
Formation of different connections around a stimulus during encoding. giving many memory cues to the same elaborated target in order to remember it better
101
What does elaboration do?
enhances memory. memory strategies all use elaboration
102
What are the two types of imagery encoding?
verbal code and image code
103
What is verbal code?
associating word or label to memory
104
What is the Dual code hypothesis?
Paivio states that both verbal and non verbal encoding help to enhance memory
105
What is image code?
produces better memory because images are often stored as both verbal and image code
106
What is sensory memory?
detailed info, in original sensory form, very brief duration, both echoic and iconic
107
What is echoic memory?
auditory, lasts 3-4 seconds
108
What is iconic memory?
visual, lasts 0.25 seconds
109
What is short term memory?
Limited duration (30 sec), limited capacity (7 +/- 2 memories). chunking and rehearsal to improve memory
110
What is chunking?
grouping multiple bits of info into a larger chunk. Used to help improve short term memory
111
What is rehearsal?
conscious repetition of information; prolongs STM duration indefinitely
112
What is the multistore theory?
(Atkinson and shiffrin, 1968) believed that our memory begins with sensory memory, moves on to short term memory (where it can be rehearsed), and then encodes to long term memory (where it can be retrieved again and moves back to short term memory)
113
What is the working memory therory?
(Baddeley, 1993, 2012) believed that our memory starts with sensory memory and can move to either visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, or phonological loop. There it can move between any of those three and eventually to long term memory. It can also move back from long term memory to any of those three.
114
What are the similarities and differences between the Multi-store theory and working memory theory?
they both have sensory memory as the starting point and long term memory as the ending point. The multi-store theory has short term memory in between sensory memory and long term memory. The working memory theory has three different sections "the working memory" (visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, and phonological loop) between the sensory and long term memory.
115
What is working memory?
active memory, correlates with IQ
116
What is the visuospatial sketchpad?
color and form, space and movement
117
What is the phonological loop?
hearing, language
118
What is the central executive?
supervisor, chooses where attention goes, organizing thoughts
119
What is long term memory?
no known limits, relatively permanent, Explicit memory (declarative memory), and implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)
120
What is explicit memory?
(declarative memory) conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated. Includes episodic memory and semantic memory
121
What is episodic memory?
autobiographical memories. Time and events. "i remember", education and intelligence is irrelevant. admissible in court
122
What is semantic memory?
knowledge about the world. concepts, facts, ideas. "i know". Education and intelligence is relevant. not admissible in court
123
What is implicit memory?
(nondeclarative memory) affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it. Procedural, motor memory, classical conditioning, and priming
124
What is priming?
primed to have a certain response without even being consciously aware of it; billboards, ads
125
Where is explicit memory stored?
hippocampus, frontal lobes, amygdala
126
Where is implicit memory stored?
cerebellum, basal, ganglia
127
Who is Clive Wearing and what happened to him?
English Musician and musicologist. He got sick in 1985 (he was 47 and it was viral encephalitis). His hippocampus and parts of his frontal lobe were destroyed, leading to zero episodic memory, impaired semantic memory, but intact procedural/motor memory. His implicit memory is still intact. He still remembers his wife's face and name even though it is explicit memory because this is overlearned material. He gets very emotional and also has physical jerks (seizures?)
128
What is serial position affect?
tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle. Whether you remember the beginning or end of the list better depends on the primacy or recency effects.
129
What is the primacy effect?
first words remembered better than last after there has been a delay in time since you learned the list
130
What is the recency affect?
remembers last words better because there has not been a delay in time since learning the list; immediately afterwards
131
What is the difference between recall and recognition retrievals of memory?
recall is like answering an essay question while recognition is like answering a multiple choice question. recognition is easier than recall
132
What is a schema?
a pre-existing mental concept or framework that helps the mind organize and interpret information; reduces load on working memory
133
What is encoding specificity?
information present at encoding effective as retrieval cue
134
What is face recognition?
unique, remembers this the best, humans are biologically hard-wired to process faces, humans have a specific schema for faces.
135
What is prosopagnosia?
face-blindness. difficulty recognizing familiar faces; associated with the inferior temporal cortex. can be mild or severe
136
What are autobiographical memories?
episodic; lifetime periods (reminiscence bump and most abstract), general events (least abstract), event-specific information
137
What are emotional memories?
traumatic events (role of stress related hormones; norepinephrine and cortisol), repressed memories: motivated forgetting (first forgotten later recovered, freudian defense mechanism), flashbulb memories
138
What is a reminiscence bump?
older people tend to remember teens and 20s than other periods of their lives
139
What are flashbulb memories?
almost like an image of a traumatic event. Can remember a lot of details
140
What is the Freudian Defense mechanism?
ego pushes down emotional memories into unconscious memory
141
What are repressed memories?
Loss of memory for abuse is possible; false reconstruction of memory is possible; difficult to separate accurate and inaccurate memories; most children over age 4 have accurate recall
142
Are eyewitness testimonies often true or false?
often false even if well intentioned due to inaccurate memory recall
143
What are false memories?
failure to distinguish real memories (external source) from self-generated thoughts, dreams or other memories (internal source). Distortion (leading questions, altered by new information), bias, inaccuracy (fading with time). A memory can be false even when we are confident it is valid and clear
144
What is the forgetting curve?
nonsense syllables (zeq, xid, lek), Note: forgetting is not so extensive, when the material is meaningful you will remember more for longer. Over the first 48 hours, you only remember around 25% of the info. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) researched this
145
What is an encoding failure?
sometimes we fail to remember something because it was never encoded into memory
146
What is retrieval failure?
Interference effects; information in memory may interfere with the recall of similar information (snow white vs sleeping beauty); proactive interference (old information interferes with with recall of new info); retroactive interference (new info interferes with recall of old info)
147
What is proactive interference?
old interferes with new memories
148
What is retroactive interference?
new interferes with old memories
149
What is Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
effortful retrieval of known information; can retrieve some but not all information (memory is not all-or-none; words may be stored in multiple ways - visual, auditory, meaning; availability and accessibility are not the same)
150
What are the two types of amnesia?
anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia (people can have both, but most people have one or the other)
151
What is anterograde amnesia?
inability to store new information and events
152
What is retrograde amnesia?
inability to retrieve past information and events
153
What are study tips for encoding?
process deeply, make associations, use imagery, use chunking, encode early and often, give undivided attention
154
What are study tips for rehearsing?
redo notes, talk to others, rest and eat well, test yourself, ask yourself questions
155
What is cognitive psychology?
study of consciousness, memory, decision making, problem solving, intelligence, language, etc
156
What are thinking concepts?
mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics; prototype model
157
What is prototype model?
In evaluating whether something fits a particular concept, we evaluate how well it fits our prototype of the category (protype: most typical example); humans tend to think in prototypes
158
What are the problem solving steps?
1. Find and frame the problem
2. Develop good problem-solving strategies (subgoals, algorithms, heuristics)
3. Evaluate solutions
4. rethinking and redefining problems and solutions over time
159
What are some problem solving obstacles?
fixation and functional fixedness
160
What is functional fixedness?
fixation on an object's usual functions (neglects unusual uses)
161
What is fixation?
failure to see a problem from a fresh perspective or called mental set
162
What are the two types of reasoning?
inductive and deductive reasoning
163
What is inductive reasoning?
driven by data; bottom-up; begin with specific data and get to general conclusions
164
What are examples of inductive reasoning?
Most of the men in Bill's family live past 90 yrs old. We can be confident that Bill will live a long life.
Scientific research (collect data from samples, draw conclusions about populations)
165
What is deductive reasoning?
driven by logic; top-down; begin with general premises and gets to specific data
166
What are deductive reasoning examples?
All apples are fruit . The fuji is a type of apple. So, the fuji is a fruit.
Mathematical proofs (begin with premises and reach conclusions that must follow)
167
What is an algorithim?
methodical procedure or formula that guarantees a correct solution; Exhaustive (considers every possible solution); Computers are often helpful when using algorithms; Often associated with mathematics
168
What is a Heuristic?
simple thinking strategy to solve problems and make judgements; usually involves a short-cut; usually speedier than algorithms; a "rule-of-thumb" approach; more error prone than algorithms
169
What is avalibilty heuristic?
tendency to estimate the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. If certain events come readily to mind we judge such events to be more common than events that do not come readily to mind. This can lead to biased estimates.
170
What are examples of availability heuristic?
Which is more common? "R" as the first letter of a word or "R" as the third letter? :3rd letter (it is just harder to think of the 3rd letter than the first letter)
Teen suicide is not the highest suicide rate (highest is 45-64), but teen suicide gets more media attention so it is believed to be the highest by the public
171
What is hindsight bias?
The false belief (after the fact) that one could have predicted the outcome of a decision or its consequences even before the decision was made
172
Give an example of hindsight bias
"You shouldn't have invested in that stock"
"I knew she was no good for you"
Believe that the outcome of the OJ SImpson trial could have been accurately predicted
173
What is confirmation bias?
Tendency to seek evidence supporting our prior beliefs and expectations and ignore evidence that contradicts our prior beliefs and expectations (people tend to seek out what they are looking for). Failure to seek disconfirming evidence is a pitfall in decision making. Persons believing in extrasensory perception (ESP) often persist in their belief because of confirmation bias
174
Give an example of confirmation bias
Noticing instances in which you were thinking about mom and mom called and not thinking about the far more frequent instances in which you were thinking about mom and mom didnt call
175
What is intelligence?
Learning from experience, solving problems, using knowledge to adapt to new situations. Can be crystalized or fluid
176
What is crystalized intelligence?
our accumulated knowledge (vocab, general knowledge); increases as we get older
177
Give an example of crystalized intelligence
What is 0 kelvin in celsius?
Knowing fun facts
Capital of North Korea
178
What is fluid intelligence?
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decreases beginning in our 20s and 30s, slowly up to age 75 and then more rapidly, especially after age 85
179
Give an example of fluid intelligence
solving a novel logic problem
180
What are intelligence tests?
Having a mixture of crystalized and fluid intelligence problems. WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) is used for kids ages 6-16 years old. WAIS is for adults. IQ (intelligence quotient) points measures your intelligence. After a person misses 4-5 questions on a subtest, they move onto the next subtest
181
How much is average IQ?
100 (regardless of age)
182
What are some subtests of the WISC?
Picture concepts, similarities, picture completion, information
183
What are picture concepts?
items placed in two or three rows; child is instructed to pick one picture that from each row that go together
184
Give an example of similarity questions on the WISC
What ways are milk and water alike?
What way are a frown and a smile alike?
What way are first and last alike?
185
What is picture completion?
Shown a picture for 20 seconds; child has to find what part is missing from the picture
186
Give an example of picture completion
Shown a picture of a bathroom from above but the drain of the bathtub is missing
187
What is information (subtest)?
The child answers questions that address a broad range of general knowledge topics. Tests crystalized intelligence.
188
Give an example of information (subtest)
What is the day that comes after Thursday?
What does the stomach do?
189
What is standardization?
allows an individuals performance on a psychological test to be compared to that of a reference group (standardization sample) that represents the population with whim the test will be used. Intelligence scores would be meaningless unless there is an appropriate reference group.
190
How do you figure out standardization?
Figuring out the standard of the group by testing a large portion of its population and picking a good variety in order to have a broad range.
191
What were some considerations when WISC standardized?
large group of children, roughly 100 males/100 females in each age group; race/ethnicity matched the recent census; considered parent education;
192
What is the normal curve?
symmetrical bell-shaped curve; describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes such as height, intelligence, and personality; most scores fall near the average, few lie near the extremes
193
What is normal curve data for Wechsler Intelligence Score?
85-115 is 68% of the population
70-130 is 95% of population
55-145 is 99.7% of poputaltion
About 2% of the pop is above 130 and 2% of the pop below 70
194
What is intellectual disability?
refers to people who have an IQ around 70 or below; have difficulty with adaptive skills such as: conceptual skills, social skills, practical daily living skills; some people have mild intellectual disability and in rare cases it can be extreme.
195
What is re-standardization?
Re-testing a sample of general population to make an updated, accurate comparison group, in case people are smarter than they used to be when the test was first made.
196
What is The Flynn Effect?
James Flynn - 1980s; performance on intelligence tests has improved over the years worldwide; If you give a modern person and old IQ test, they will appear to have a higher IQ; It now seems to be leveling off
197
What are some explanations for the Flynn Effect?
People today are more accustomed to doing the kinds of conceptual problems that have always been on intelligence tests; Today, a greater percentage or the pop pursues higher levels of education; most people (regardless of socioeconomic level) are exposed to great amounts of information; people in the past could not take "hypothetical" tests seriously; phones give us access to greater amounts of info; we deal with less disease
198
What is NOT an explanation for the Flynn Effect?
Better genetically engineered brains is not the reason; our brains could not have evolved that fast
199
What are the three types of development?
Biological processes, cognitive processes, and socioemotional processes
200
What are research methods in developmental psychology?
cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies
201
What are cross-sectional studies?
studying people of different ages at one point in time; shows cohort effect
202
What are longitudinal studies?
studying the same people multiple times over a long period of time; this can eliminate cohort effects
203
What are cohort effect?
differences between individuals result from a common life experience rather than age; a problem with cross-sectional research
204
What are the three stages to prenatal development?
Zygote, embryo, fetus
205
What is the zygote stage?
Germinal period; conception - 2 weeks; period of rapid cell division; period ends with implantation in the uterus
206
What is the embryo stage?
(< .2" - 1.6") from 3 weeks through 2nd month (8 weeks); development of organs, including brain, heart, digestive tract; damage to unborn child by teratogens (tobacco, alcohol, illegal drugs, chemicals) is great during this period
207
What is the fetus stage?
(1.6" - 20") from 2 months to birth (typically, 9 months, i.e., 38 weeks); organ functioning increases during the last 3 months of pregnancy; risk from teratogens remains high (fetal alcohol syndrome); rapid increase in size
208
Give major developments and their week in prenatal development?
Week 5 - heartbeat
Week 8 - fingers and toes
week 12 - fingernails and toenails
week 13 - kicks and thumb in mouth
week 16 - facial expressions, eyes sensitive to light, hiccups, squints, frowns
Week 18 - can hear (including moms heartbeat), can be startled by loud noises
Week 23 - practice breathing begins (amniotic fluid moves in and out of lungs)
209
At birth what body part is closest in size to the full adult size version of it?
the brain
210
Why does our brain grow over time?
addition of myelin to neurons, growth of glial cells, and new synaptic connections
211
When does the number of neurons in our brain peak?
28 weeks (prenatal)
212
Does the neuron count or connection amount change over time?
The amount of connections changes over time.
213
At what point in the human life does the amount of synaptic connections increase dramatically?
infancy and childhood
214
Will we use all of the synaptic connections made?
no, there are twice as many than will be used
215
What happens to unused synaptic connections?
they are pruned. If they are not pruned this results in autism.
216
What is cognition?
how individuals think along with their cognitive skills and abilities
217
What is a schema?
mental concept or framework that organizes and provides structure for interpreting information
218
What is Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
believed that children actively construct their cognitive world (they are little scientists); assimilation and accomidation
219
What is assimilation?
interpreting one's new experiences in terms of an existing schema; new info is incorporated into an existing schema
220
What is accomodation?
new information causes one to adapt the schema to new info; reflecting and having a new understanding
221
What are the four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development?
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
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What is sensorimotor?
The first stage of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory; ranges from birth to nearly 2 years; child experiences the world through senses and actions; they gain object permanence and stranger anxiety
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What is Preoperational?
The 2nd stage of Piaget's Cognitive Development theory; ranges from 2-6/7; child represents things with words or images, using intuitive rather than logical reasoning; gained pretend play, egocentrism, language development, animism; not good at quick calculations; asks lots of questions
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What is Concrete Operational?
the third stage of piaget's cognitive development theory; ranges 7-11; thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and preparing arithmetical operations; gained conversation and mathematical transformations; also deals with centration; better at making quick calculations but not good at abstract thinking
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What is Formal Operational?
last step of Piaget's cognitive development theory; ranges 12-adulthood; abstract reasoning; gained abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning
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What is search strategy?
develops 6-8 months old; mentally coordinating vision, arms, and hands in order to find object
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What is object permanance?
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; develops gradually between 4-8 months
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What is stranger anxiety?
at about 8 months (soon after object permanence engages) children develop this. Greeting strangers by crying and reaching for familiar caregivers
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What is the type of language growth experienced during the preoperational stage?
exponential growth. At 2-2.5 years a child understands around 500 words, but at 6-7 a child understands 20,000 words
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What is animism?
belief that inanimate objects have qualities of living objects
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What is egocentrism?
inability of the preoperational child to take another's point of view
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What is conservation?
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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What is conservation?
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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What are mathematical transformations?
awareness that 4+6=10
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What is centration?
focusing on only one aspect (limits ability to think about things)
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What is abstract logic?
logical reasoning about concepts; conceptual thinking about general rules
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Give an example of abstract logic
You are at a party of truth-tellers and liars. The truth-tellers always tell the truth and the liars always lie. You meet a new friend. He tells you that he just overheard a convo in which a girl said she was a liar. Is your new friend a liar or a truth-teller?
Basically just complicated riddles
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What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning?
developing hypotheses and testing hypotheses; sets stage for moral reasoning
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Give an example of hypothetical-deductive reasoning
If I do x, how will this affect other people? If I do y, how will this affect other people?
Games that require an ability to answer a "What if...?" question like sudoku
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Do parenting styles cause children's outcome?
correlation is not causation (children's traits may influence parenting; since parents and children share genes, parenting may be less important than hereditary)
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When analyzing parenting styles, what parts do you look at?
1. How strict rules are
2. How parent responds to child asking questions (why can't I go to the party?)
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What parenting styles are there?
(Diana Baumrind 1991) Authoritarian, permissive, neglectful, and authoritative
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What is authoritarian parenting style?
parents impose rules and expect obedience; no reasons given; " 'don't interrupt.' 'Why?' 'Because I said so.' "; children may lack social skills and have low self-esteem; children's reaction to this style will depend on culture type (collectivism vs. individualism); may not prep you for the real world well; sometimes can be abuse, sometimes not
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What is permissive parenting style?
submit to children's desires, make few demands, much freedom, indulgent, use little punishment; children may fail to respect others, be immature, expect their own way, be aggressive; humans need boundaries
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What is neglectful parenting style?
few rules and demands; parents are insensitive to child's needs; children struggle with independence, show poor self control; kids need care
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What is authoritative parenting style?
both demanding and responsive, consistent enforcement of rules; set rules, but provide reasons and encourage open discussion, sensitive and accepting of child; associated with later self-reliance, higher self-esteem and social competence - compared to other parenting styles; "kids have a voice but not a vote"
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Do parents stick to one style or can they switch over time?
can switch over time
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What is Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial (Interpersonal) Development?
Each stage of life involves a crisis or conflict that must be resolved successfully (otherwise, the individual will continue to struggle with this conflict and this failure can impede the ability to negotiate later stages)
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What was the difference between Erikson's beliefs and Freud's beliefs?
Erikson believed that we continued to develop throughout life which was not what Freud believed (infancy to adolescence)
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What are the stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Development?
Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs identity confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair
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What are the stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Development?
Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs identity confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair
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What is trust vs mistrust?
Infancy- 1.5 years; If needs are deeply met, infants develop a sense of basic trust; gained: hope and optimism/trusting
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What is autonomy vs shame and doubt?
Toddler (1.5 years - 3 years); Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities; toddlers also go through separation from parents and individualism; gained: determination
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What is initiative vs guilt?
Preschooler (3-5 years); Preeschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans; gained: learn to take risks but not unreasonably
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Can you go back to different stages if something causes it to?
Yes
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What is industry vs inferiority?
Elementary (6 yrs - puberty); children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior and unproductive; gained: confidence
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What is identity vs identity confusion?
Adolescence (puberty - 20s); Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are; psychosocial moratorium; gained: devotion
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What is intimacy vs isolation?
Young adult (20s-30s); Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated; gained: love
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What is psychosocial moratorium?
transitioning from dependence on parents to independence
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What is generativity vs stagnation?
Middle adult (40s - 50s); The middle-aged discover sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose; can go through mid-life crisis; gained: leaving a legacy
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What is integrity vs despair?
Late adult (60s - death); When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure; Gained: wisdom
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What is James Marcia's theory on identity development?
Building on Erikson's ideas re: identity vs identity confusion, Marcia proposed that exploration and commitment are both important to developing a healthy identity
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What are Marcia's identity statuses?
Identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement
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What is identity diffusion?
no exploration, no commitment
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What is identity forclosure?
commitment, no exploration (doing same or opposite of friends/fam)
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What is identity moratorium?
exploration, no commitment
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What is identity achievment?
commitment, exploration
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What are the three main parts to Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Preconventional, conventional, postconventional
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What are the stages of preconventional?
(self-interest)
Stage 1 (avoid punishment)
example: should not steal because he will be put in prison/ should steal because the pharmacist may not know that he stole and he may not go to prison
Stage 2 (gain something of value)
example: Steal because it could save his wife and he will be happy/should not steal because prison is awful
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What are the stages of conventional?
(Laws and social rules)
Stage 3 (conformity)
example: should steal because wife expects it/should not steal because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal
Stage 4 (law-and-order)
example: should not steal because it is illegal/should steal the drug, but should pay back the pharmacist and take the prescribed punishment
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What are the stages of post conventional?
(Universal rights, personal moral principles)
Stage 5 (human rights)
example: should steal because everyone has a right to choose life regardless of law/should not steal because the pharmacist has a right to fair compensation
Stage 6 (universal human ethics)
example: should steal because saving a human life is more fundamental value than the property rights of another person/should not steal because others may need the medicine just as badly and their lives are equally as valuable
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What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
believed that a capacity for formal operational thought was essential to higher moral reasoning, emphasized a sense of justice (the rights of individuals) and fairness in his theory; even psychopaths understand morals, but choose to do the wrong thing
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What did Kohlberg study?
Piaget; verbal moral behavior not actual moral behaviot
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What is Carol Gilligan's response to Kohlberg's theory?
argues that the choice to focus on a justice perspective is subjective (she notes that women tend to base moral choices on principles of compassion and caring relationships rather than justice (fairness)
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What were some other responses to Kohlberg's theory?
moral reasoning and moral behavior are not the same thing; concerns that kohlberg overemphasized the role of logic in moral reasoning and dismissed the role
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What is current thinking on moral development?
Multiple moral foundations influence people's moral judgements:
Care (kindness, compassion)
Fairness (equal treatment for all)
Loyalty (being true to others)
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What is instinctive drift?
The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
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What are some biological factors that can inhibit learning?
instinctive drift and preparedness
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What is preparedness?
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others; some species may be more prepared to learn one thing than another
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What is procedural/motor memory?
memory for skills (clive could still play the piano)
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What is permastore content?
portion of original learning that appears destined to stay with the person virtually forever, even without rehearsal (Bahrick coined this term)
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What is a connectionist network?
Also called Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP), is the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory.
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What is the encoding specificity principle?
states that information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue; context-dependent memory
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What is encoding failure?
occurs when the information was never entered into long-term memory; causing the person to forget that information
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What is retrospective memory?
remembering information from the past
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What is prospective memory?
remembering information about needing to do something in the future; includes memory for intentions
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What are study tips for organizing?
1. Review your course notes routinely and catch potential errors and ambiguities
2. Organize the material in a way that will allow you to commit it to memory effectively. Arrange info, rework material, and give it a structure that will help you remember it.
3. Experiment with different organizational techniques. One approach is to use a hierarchy such as an outline. You might create analogies that take advantage of your pre existing schemas. as you begin to organize the information, you might explore possible mnemonics to help you memorize
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How do you keep memory sharp and improving brain function?
If you live active intellectual lives then you are more protected against alzheimer disease and symptoms
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What is AI?
A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
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What is representation heuristic?
The tendency to make judgements about a group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information.
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What is loss aversion?
The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains.
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What is heritability?
The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members
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What is reliability?
The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
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What is validity?
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
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What is gifted intelligence?
Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area
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What are the basic properties of language?
Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
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What is phonology?
A language's sound system
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What is morphology?
A language's rules for word formation
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What is syntax?
a language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
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What is semantics?
the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
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What is pragmatics?
the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized
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What is Whorf's linguistic relativity hypothesis?
language determines the way we think; some disagree with him because people can learn new terms therefore changing the way we think, however, they believe it may be accurate for information in the left hemisphere of the brain.
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Give an example of Whorf's linguistic relativity hypothesis
Women tend to be able to describe color more in depth while men tend to only use basic color terms due to their lack of the vocabulary.
Inuit people in Alaska can describe different types of texture in snow but, English speaking people do not have this vocabulary therefore they cannot "see" the different types of snow.`
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What are language universals?
Noam Chomsky argued humans come into the world biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way; the evidence for this is because children all around the world reach language milestones around the same ages and in the same order; children cannot learn the full rules and structures of language just by imitating what they hear, so nature must have given them a biological understanding of universal grammar
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Can environmental influences prohibit language development?
Yes, if a child is not exposed to language in their early years this can cause damage to their language later in life (example: the girl who was locked away in a room until 13 could only speak in three word sentences later in life); also your family background can influence your language development (study showed children from welfare families learned significantly less words than that of a middle income family); environmental influences complicate our understanding of language development
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What is dendritic spreading?
dendrites grow and spread significantly in child development
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What is synaptic density?
The amount of synapses in the brain; believed to be an important indiction of the extent of connectivity between neurons
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What is the nativist approach to infant cognition?
infants possess primitive expectancies about events and objects in the world that are less dependent upon experience than Piaget imagined; contrasts the empiricist approach
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What is Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory?
thought of children as apprentice thinkers who develop as they interact in dialogue with more knowledgeable others, such as parents and thinkers; expert thinkers spur cognitive development by interacting with a child in a way that is just above the level of sophistication the child has mastered; these interactions provide self thinking which allows the child's ability to be built higher and higher
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What is the information processing theory?
focuses on how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it
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What is tempermant?
refers to a individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding; easy child, difficult child, slow-to-warm-up child
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What is the easy child?
generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences
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What is the difficult child?
tends to react negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences
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What is the slow-to-warm-up child?
has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, is inflexible, and is very cautious in the face of new experiences.
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What is infant attachment?
the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
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What was Ainsworth's strange situation?
caregivers left children alone with a stranger and then came back; children's responses to this classified what attachment style they fell into: secure, insecure (avoidant or anxious)
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What is secure attachment?
the ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment
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What is avoidant attachment?
infant might not know the caregiver has left
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What is anxious/ambivalent attachment?
infant responds with intense distress, only to rage at the caregiver when they return
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What is insecure attachment?
avoidant, anxious/ambivalent; infants do not use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore; instead, they experience their relationship with the caregiver as unstable and unreliable.
