Exam #2 Flashcards
ch.5 Self-report measure +1
A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview. For example, asking people how much they appreciate their partner and asking about gender identity are both self-report measures.
Observational measures+1
A method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors. Also called behavioral measure. For example, a researcher could operationalize happiness by observing how many times a person smiles. Intelligence tests can be considered observational measures, because the people who administer such tests in person are observing people’s intelligent behaviors. People may change behavior because they know they are being watched.
Physiological measures+1
A method of measuring a variable by recording biological data, such as heart rate, galvanic skin response, blood pressure. Physiological measures usually require the use of equipment to record and analyze biological data.
Ex: measuring hormone levels, brain activity;
Measure cortisol in saliva of children and check how it’s related to their behavior.
What’s reliability? What are the kinds of reliability?+1
The consistency or stability of the results of a behavior measure. They are Test-retest reliability, Alternate forms reliability, Interrater reliability, Internal reliability and Split-half reliability.
test-retest reliability?+1
The consistency in results every time a measure is used.
- Test-retest reliability is assessed by measuring the same individuals at two points in time and comparing results. High correlation between test and retest indicates reliability.
For example, a trait like intelligence is not usually expected to change over a few months, so if we assess the test-retest reliability of an IQ test and obtain a low score, we would be doubtful about the reliability of this test. In contrast, if we were measuring flu symptoms or seasonal stress, we would expect test-retest reliabilities to be low, simply because these constructs do not
stay the same over time.
interrater reliability?+1
The degree to which two or more observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets.
- Interrater reliability is the correlation between the observations of different RATERS.
-A high correlation indicates raters agree in their ratings.
- To test the interrater reliability of some measure, we might ask two observers to rate the same participants at the same time, and then we would compute r. If r is positive and strong (according to many researchers, = .70 or higher), we would have very good interrater reliability.
For example, suppose you are assigned to observe the number of times each child smiles in 1 hour at a childcare playground. If, for one child, you record 12 smiles during the first hour and your lab partner also records 12 smiles in that hour, there is interrater reliability.
What’s validity?+1
how accurate an assessment/test/measure is
-The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision
Construct validity?+1
An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study.
- It can be used in observational research.
For example, how much do people eat in fast-food restaurants?
Construct validity is especially important when a construct is not directly observable. Take happiness: We have no means of directly measuring how happy a person is. We could estimate it in a number of ways, such as scores on a well-being inventory, daily smile rate, blood pressure, stress hormone levels etc.
Face validity+1
The extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question.
-!!The content of the measure appears to reflect the construct being measured.
Ex: Head circumference has high face validity as a measurement of hat size, but it has low face validity as an operationalization of intelligence. In contrast, speed of problem solving, vocabulary size, and curiosity have higher face validity as operationalizations of intelligence.
-Does the measure look good: the weakest validity.
Content validity+1
The extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct.
Ex: measure all anxiety domains. Consider this conceptual definition of intelligence, which contains distinct elements, including the ability to “reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience”. To have adequate content validity, any operationalization of intelligence should include questions or items to assess each of these seven components.
Criterion validity+1
evaluates whether the measure under consideration is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome with which it should be associated.
- Criterion validity is especially important for self-report measures because the correlation can indicate how well people’s self-reports predict their actual behavior.
- Criterion validity evidence could show that IQ scores are correlated with other behavioral outcomes that are theoretically related to intelligence, such as the ability to solve problems and indicators of life success
- It’s measuring current outcome (ask).
We make sure that no other events can influence the outcome.
Predictive validity (ask not in book)+1
refers to the ability of a test or other measurement to predict a future outcome. Here, an outcome can be a behavior, performance, or even disease that occurs at some point in the future.
e.g. A pre-employment test has predictive validity when it can accurately identify the applicants who will perform well after a given amount of time, such as one year on the job.
Surveys definition? (ch. 6)+1
A method of posing questions to people on the telephone, in personal interviews, on written questionnaires, or via the Internet. Also called polls.
But, it is often used when people are asked about consumer products.
Polls definition +1
A method of posing questions to people on the telephone, in personal interviews, on written questionnaires, or via the Internet. Also called survey.
But, it is often used when people are asked about their social or political opinions.
Observational research+1
The process of watching people or animals and systematically recording how they behave or what they are doing.
Some claims based on observational data.
– Observing how much people talk, behave, etc.
Strength - for people that struggle with introspection.
Observer bias?+1
a bias that occurs, when observers’ expectations influence their interpretation of participant behavior or outcomes of the study. Instead of rating behaviors objectively, observers rate behaviors according to their own expectations or hypotheses.
Observer/expectancy effects+1
observers inadvertently change the behavior of the participants they are observing.
- Observers not only see what they expect to see; sometimes they even cause the behavior of those they are observing, such as rats to conform to their expectations.
Ways to reduce observer bias & effects+1
- Researchers can assess the construct validity of a coded measure by using multiple observers.
- Masked design/blind design- observers are unaware of the purpose of the study and the conditions/groups participants assigned to.
- Training for observers
If there is disagreement, the researchers may need to train their observers better and develop a clearer coding system for rating the behaviors. - “Blend in”. One way to avoid observer effects is to make unobtrusive observations—that is, make yourself less noticeable.
- “Wait it out”. A researcher who plans to observe at a school might let the children get used to his or her presence until they forget they’re being watched.
- “Indirect measure”. Instead of observing
behavior directly, researchers measure the traces a particular behavior leaves behind. e.g. The number of empty liquor bottles in residential garbage indicates how much alcohol is being consumed in a community.
(- Researchers develop clear rating instructions, often
called codebooks, so the observers can make reliable judgments with minimal bias.)
Constructing Leading Questions to Ask (simplicity)+1
The way a question is worded and presented in a survey can make a tremendous difference in how people answer.
Constructing Double-barreled Questions to Ask+1
A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because it asks two questions in one, thereby weakening its construct validity. People might be responding to the first half of the question, the second half, or both.
e.g. Do you enjoy swimming and running?
Constructing Negatively-worded Questions to Ask+1
A question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity.
Ex: People who do not drive with an expired license should never be punished. “It’s impossible that it never happened.” In order to give your opinion, you must be able to unpack the double negative of “and“ So instead of measuring people’s beliefs, the question may be measuring people’s working memory.
Graphic rating scale? +1
It’s a nonverbal scale for children
e.g. Pain scale with pictures
