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Cell and Tissue Biology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Permeability of the membrane before, during, and after an AP

A

Before, K+ is much greater

During, Na is much greater

After, K+ is high once again

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2
Q

What keeps the membrane potential near Ek at rest

A

Leaky K+ channels

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3
Q

Long QT syndrome

A

Takes longer to repolarize after the action potential

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4
Q

Glucose-sodium cotransporter

A

Two sodium for every glucose molecule, can get 10,000 fold conc. gradient for glucose

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5
Q

Most important countertransporter in the body and why

A

Na/H exchanger, cell pH is basic because protons are constantly pumped out using sodium

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6
Q

Digitalis (oubain)

A

inhibits the Na/K ATPase, causing reverse operation of the Na/Ca exchanger, raising cytoplasmic Ca2 and producing a more powerful heart contraction

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7
Q

Voltage sensor

A

Polar element within a membrane that moves to one side or another based on charge

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8
Q

3 regions of a pore module

A

Selectivity filter, cavity, and gating

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9
Q

Are there synapses in sensory ganglia

A

No

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10
Q

Afferent vs. efferent

A

Afferent (towards a source), sensory

Efferent (away from a source), motor

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11
Q

Where are pseudounipolar neurons found

A

Exclusively in sensory ganglia in the PNS, single short process bifurcates into two other processes

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12
Q

Axon hillock and rough ER

A

It has no Nissl substance

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13
Q

MAP’s

A

Microtubules-associated proteins that compartmentalize the neuron

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14
Q

What part of a neuron is lost with age

A

Dendritic spines

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15
Q

Anterograde neuronal transport

A

Kinesis, 400 mm a day

There is also slow, diffusive transport (enzymes and neurotransmitter precursors)

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16
Q

Neurofibrillary tangles

A

Caused by tau protein that causes crosslinking of microtubules in alzheimers, down’s etc.

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17
Q

Retrograde axonal transport

A

Mediated by dynein, recycles substances, can take up toxins and viruses

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18
Q

Oligodendrocyte

A

Makes CNS myelin, multiple axons

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19
Q

Microglia

A

CNS macrophage, smallest cell, derived from monocytes

Proliferate to site of CNS injury, determine survival of a tissue graft

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20
Q

Astrocytes

A

Ensheath the synapse, store glycogen

Foot processes make the blood-brain barrier

Most common glial cells in the CNS

Proliferate to injuries and form an astroglial scar

Are similar to neurons but are not polarized

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21
Q

GFAP

A

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein, expresses by astrocytes

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22
Q

Ependymal cells and tanycytes

A

Other two glial CNS cells

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23
Q

Satellite cells

A

Microenvironment around a ganglion, pathway for metabolic exchange

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24
Q

Schwann cells

A

Make all PNS myelin

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25
Q

Guillane-Barre syndrome vs. MS

A

MS is CNS myelin disorder, Guillane barre is PNS myelin

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26
Q

What myelin proteins cause compaction of schwann cell myelin

A

P0 and MBP (Myelin Basic Protein)

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27
Q

Are nodes of ranvier larger in the CNS or the PNS

A

Larger in the CNS, making saltatory conduction more efficient

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28
Q

Neuregulin

A

Signal that causes myelination, derived from axon size

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29
Q

Wallerian degeneration

A

Anterograde degeneration, axon degenerates distal to the cut, cell body undergoes retrograde chromatolysis

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30
Q

Molecules that cause lack of CNS regrowth

A

Nogo, MAG, and OMgp

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31
Q

Epineurium

A

Connective tissue around surface of entire nerve

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32
Q

Perineurium

A

Blood nerve barrier, surrounds each fascicle of nerve fibers

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33
Q

Endoneurium

A

Surrounds each nerve cell and is made of collagen and reticular tissue

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34
Q

Cystic Fibrosis

A

Mutation in CFTR, mucus in lungs cannot trap bacteria

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35
Q

ASL

A

Airway surface liquid, below the sticky mucus that cilia beat out of the lungs, 8 microns high

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36
Q

Passage of CL from lumen of the lungs

A

Can be paracellular or transcellular, follows sodium, net effect is a pumping of NaCl from the apical to the basolateral membrane, and water follows, dehydrating the ASL

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37
Q

CF heterozygote advantage

A

May mae you more resistant to cholera-induced diarrhea

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38
Q

Cholera mechanism

A

Activates the CFTR regulatory domain, ion channel always opened and dehygration occurs

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39
Q

Cholera and glucose treatment

A

Sodium glucose transporter causes water to obligatorily come with the glucose, counteracting the loss in the cholera

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40
Q

What can the reflex arc at the patellar tendon be used to detect

A

pre-eclampsia

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41
Q

Why does AP depolarization not go backwards

A

Sodium channels remain inactivated (cannot reopen) and the voltage gated potassium channels are slow to close

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42
Q

Myelin and capacitance

A

Myelin decreases the effective membrane capacitance

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43
Q

how does a chemical synapse work

A

Depolarization opens voltage gated calcium channels

Ca ions bind to SNARE proteins, vesicles fused with the membrane and Ach is released

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44
Q

Botulin toxin

A

Blocks the vesicle fusion process by cleaving SNARE proteins that are required

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45
Q

High Safety Factor

A

Endplate potential brinds the membrane potential to the AP threshold every time

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46
Q

How many nuclei do smooth muscle have

A

1

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47
Q

Electrical isolation properties of the different muscle cells

A

Skeletal muscles are isolated electrically, cardiac and smooth muscles are connected to neighboring cells (smooth can sometimes be isolated)

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48
Q

Satellite Muscle Cells

A

Closely associated with muscle fibers, can be reactivated at any time, re-enter the cell cycle, and generate new cells to fuse into

Tend to have totallly condense chromatin

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49
Q

When are the nuclei of muscle cells centrally located

A

When the fiber is damaged

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50
Q

A band

A

The extent of the thick myosin filaments

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51
Q

H band

A

Parts of the myosin band where there is no actin present

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52
Q

I band

A

Parts where only actin is present

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53
Q

M line

A

Narrow dark line in the center of the A band, L line is the narrow light line next to the M line on each side

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54
Q

Z band

A

High density of protein on the edge of each sarcomere

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55
Q

Myomesin

A

Proteins in the M band that bind the thick myosin filaments together

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56
Q

Myosin II

A

The myosin that is found in muscle, made up of 2 essential light chains, 2 regulatory light chains, and 2 heavy chains

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57
Q

In what part of myosin does phosphorylation occur

A

At the end motor domains, on the regulatory lgith chains

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58
Q

Actin and Myosin and polarization

A

The actin filament is polarized, unlike the myosin filament.

the pointed end of actin is the minus end, while the barbed end is the plus end

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59
Q

Tropomodulin

A

Capping protein that regulates acin polymerization and depolymerization at the pointed end of the actin filament

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60
Q

CapZ

A

Capping protein that regulates actin polymerization and depolymerization at the barbed end

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61
Q

Titin

A

Elastic protein that forms connections between Z discs and myosin filaments

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62
Q

Myosin and actin in the absence of ATP

A

Bind tightly, rigor mortis

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63
Q

When does the power stroke occur

A

As phosphate is released. When ADP dissociates, myosin minds to actin again

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64
Q

Tetanus

A

Completely fused twitches

Also a bacteria - cleaves synaptobrevin which blocks the release of inhibitory NT’s, permitting unopposed neural stimulation

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65
Q

Positive After Potential

A

Occurs in skeletal muscle, AP in the T-tubular membranes takes place slightly after that on the surface membrane

66
Q

Sarcolemma

A

Depolarization of the plasmalemma, results int he release of calcium from the SR

67
Q

SR

A

Located in the space between the myofibrils of the muscles, enabling a simultaneous release of Ca2

68
Q

T tubules

A

Invagination of the surface membrane that penetrate into muscle and form a transverse network at 1-2 sacromeric intervals

They depolariz when the surface of the muscle fiber depolarizes

69
Q

Triad

A

T-tubule sandwiched between two SR membranes

70
Q

Feet

A

Small densities that span the SR and T tubule gap and connect one membrane to the other

71
Q

What occurs when the foot gate of the triad opens

A

Ca moves from the SR lumen into the myoplasm

72
Q

Where is calcium for contraction stored in skletal and cardiac muscle

A

Skeletal - SR

Cardia - extra cellular fluid

73
Q

How does calcium removal occur following contraction

A

Na-Ca exchanger and the Ca (ATPase) pump (this pump sequesters Ca within the SR)

74
Q

State of muscle relaxation

A

Regulatory proteins inhibit actin-myosin interactions, and the sarcomere can be stretched passively

75
Q

Ca and troponin

A

Ca binds to the troponin C portion of the troponin complex, which loosens tropomyosin, uncovering actin molecules so that they can interact with myosin heads

76
Q

Motor unit

A

Single motoneuron innervates multiple muscle fibers

77
Q

What is force production (micro-level) dependent on

A

The number of sites on which crossbridges can form (between actin and myosin)

78
Q

What is total tension in a muscle determined by

A

Sum of active (actin and myosin) and passive (elastic, such as titin) tension

79
Q

How can passive tension be calculated

A

Do an experiment in the presence of ATP but in the absence of calcium

80
Q

ADP release and velocity

A

Quicker ADP release, faster velocity

81
Q

Advantage and disadvantage of long muscle fibers

A

Length tension curve is spread out, but it increases the amount of ATP used

82
Q

Isometric contraction vs isotonic

A

Muscle develops force at a constant length (metric)

shortens under constant load (tonic)

83
Q

Slow vs. fast muscle fibers

A

Slow are red muscle, darker, fatigue resistant, low ATPase, use oxidation

Fast aare paler, easily fatigued, high myosin and glycogen, some can also be red

84
Q

Red fibers

A

Many mitochondria, can maintain loads over long periods of time, have more capillaries and increased generation of ATP

85
Q

Myasthenia gravis

A

Ptosis, fatiguability of muscles

Failure of endplate potentials

AP potential latency increases with each stimualatin, and at a certain point the EPP does not hit the threshold voltage

The safety factor is small, failure in neurotransmission

86
Q

MEPP

A

Miniature Endplate Potential, caused by the release of one Ach vesicle

87
Q

Ach and Myasthenia gravis

A

The number of ACh receptors is about 33% of normal, less junctional folding as well, synaptic cleft is wider

88
Q

Antibodies and MG patients

A

Myasthenia Gravis humans have antbodies to the ACh receptor, inducing clumping for degredation

89
Q

How is MG managed

A

AChesterase inhibitors

(prostigmin and mestinon)

90
Q

Henneman’s Size Principle

A

The smaller the motor neuron, the smaller the number of muscle fibers it innervates

This allows for the gradation of force, percentage increase is constant

91
Q

Optical trap experiment

A

Showed that a fast skeletal myosin spends much longer in the detatched state that smooth muscle (smooth holds force longer)

Determined by the rate of ADP release

92
Q

Slow nerve innervating a fast twitch muscle (splicing experiment)

A

Causes the muscle to become slow

93
Q

Dystrophin

A

Transfers force between muscle fibers through adhesions

94
Q

Myostatin

A

Negative regulator of muscle growth, lack of this causes uninhibited muscle growth

95
Q

Smooth muscle and modulatory proteins

A

Caldesmon and calponin have the modulatory functionality (no troponin), tropomyosin still exists

96
Q

Ratio of actin in skeletal vs. smooth muscle

A

There is twice as much actin, more variable myosin bonding, no 1:1 correspondence with actin

97
Q

What regulates contraction in smooth muscle

A

Calcium binds to calmodulin, myosin must be phosphorylated to be active

98
Q

Dense bodies

A

Cytoplasmic connections in smooth muscle (connected by desmin, an intermediate filament)

99
Q

MLCK

A

Myosin Light Chain Kinase, regulated by Ca, activates smooth muscle myosin on the regulatory right chain

At low Ca, it is inactive, When it is active, it phosphorylates myosin and enables it to interact with actin

100
Q

Smooth muscle and t-tubules

A

There are no T tubules in smooth muscle, only Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

101
Q

Maximum myosin binding and output

A

Only around 60% of myosins in a cell need to be phosphorylated to reach maximum output

102
Q

Restoring force in smooth muscle

A

Intermediate filaments that have been compressed

103
Q

Nitric Oxide in smooth muscle

A

Activates the phosphatase and relaxes smooth muscle

104
Q

Force-Velocity curve in smooth muscle

A

Hyperbolic

105
Q

Single unit, phasic smooth muscle

A

Rapid contraction and innervated by one neuron

106
Q

Multiunit, tonic smooth muscle

A

Vascular, holds the position, slow contraction, one neuron innervates many

107
Q

Funny currents (If)

A

At the end of cardiac muscle repolarization, ion channels that conduct slow, depolarizing NA currents open

108
Q

Junctions between cardiac myocytes

A

Gap junctions and intercalated discs

109
Q

What are refractory periods due to

A

Fraction of potassium channels that remain open

110
Q

How is calcium removed from the cytoplasm in cardiac muscle

A

Na-Ca exchanger, and the SERCA pump

111
Q

Starling’s Law of the Heart

A

Whatever the heart receives, it will find a way to output

If the muscle is stretched out, contraction is stronger at longer lengths

112
Q

Skeletal muscle vs. cardiac muscle vs. point in contraction

A

In skeletal muscle, it is weakest at the beginning or end of a motion

In cardiac muscle, there is no descending limb in the length-tension relationship

113
Q

Things that cause Starling’s law to be true

A

Length dependence of Ca sensitivity - as sarcomere length is increased, the amount of force you get for the same degree of calclium also goes up

114
Q

What is the most important determinant of afterload in the heart

A

Diastolic blood pressure

115
Q

Force-Frequency response of the heart

A

Faster heart rate increases cardiac output, not just pressure

In heart fairue, there is a negative force-frequency response

116
Q

Ratio of SERCA and NCX

A

If SERCA is greater, there is increased contractility when Ca goes up

If NCX is greater, there is decreased contractility when Ca goes up

117
Q

Inotropy

A

The ability of heart muscle to develop force at a fixed length

118
Q

How is force regulated in skeletal vs. cardiac muscle

A

In skeletal - # of motor units activated

In cardiac - regulated by cytosolic Ca and Ca sensitivity

Ca sensitivity is regulated by sarcomere length and phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins

119
Q

Phases of the cardiac action potential

A

0 - upstroke of the AP, sodium channels

1 - initial rapid repolarization (small)

2 - plateau, slow repolarization

3 - steep slope downstroke

4 - resting potential

120
Q

Activation and inactivation gates of the cardiac sodium channel

A

Only a small frame where they are both open based on voltage, but both gates are open for a short time because inactivation is slower than activation

121
Q

Rectifier currents

A

Restore the polarization, have bent slopes

122
Q

How does High K+ concentration affect action potentials

A

If the membrane starts off at a higher potential, fewer inactivation channels are available to open and then close, so action potentials will be smaller

123
Q

T-Type Ca Channel

A

Inactivate quickly, transient

124
Q

L-type Ca channel

A

Much slower than Na channels, longer lasting

125
Q

All important channels over time during a heartbeat

A

Sodium, LCa and TCa open, depolarizing

T type close at the end of phase 1, ending the partial repolarization

L type calciu channels slowly close and delayed rectifier K channels open during the plateau

Plateau drops sharply when the K1 inward rectifier opens

126
Q

Action potentials of the different chambers of the heart

A

Ventricular AP is slightly longer than the atrial AP

SA node has slow upstrok and slow repolarization

Purkinje fiber has a sharp immediate spike, and the plateau is at a more negative membrane potential

127
Q

What is the order of AP’s in different places in the heart

A

SA, Atrium, AV, Bundle of His, Purkinje, Ventricle

128
Q

Pacemaker current

A

If

129
Q

P-wave

QRS Complex

T-wave

A

P wave is excitation over the atria

QRS complex is flow of excitation over the ventricles

T-wave is flow of repolarization in the ventricles

130
Q

What is a DHPR

A

A calcium channel in the triad that moves from the T-tububle to the SR membrane

131
Q

Differences between Cardiac and Skeletal Muscle E-C Coupling

A

A big portion of calcium in cardiac muscle comes from the extracellular space

Cardiac AP is much longer

In heart, Ca entry causes Ca release from the SR, while in skeletal muscle direct action between the DHPR transporter and RyR causes the Ca2 release

132
Q

Three alterations to pacemaking cells that change heart rate

A

Reduced rate of phase 4 depolarization

Less negative threshold

More Negative max diastolic potential

133
Q

Parasympathetic Action on the SA Node

A

Ach from the vagus nerve decreases heart rate by increasing K+ Permeability

K-ACh potassium channel is what is affected

134
Q

Three alterations in strength of cardiac contraction

A

Increased Ca

More Sensitive to Ca

More Force at each concentration of Ca

135
Q

Rate straircase

A

If the heart rate increases, strength of contraction becomes higher

136
Q

Mechanism of the Rate Staircase

A

Contraction strength increases at high rates because diastole shortens more than systole, this leads to a higher proportion of the cardiac cycle in systole at a higher rate

Balance between influx and efflux changes

Not as much time to pump the calcium back out - calcium stays in to cause a stronger beat

137
Q

Catecholamines (sympathetic action) and the heart

A

Increase strength of contraciton by increasing Cyclic AMP which increases calcium pumping by the SR, even though there is a decreased sensitivity to calcium

However, overall there is an increased force

138
Q

What cell specialization allows calcium to be released simulataneously around a muscle

A

T-tubules

139
Q

Where can alpha-actinin be found

A

In the Z band, at the beginning and end of each sarcomere

140
Q

Dorsal root ganglion and synapses

A

No synapses occur in that space

141
Q

What is the difference between unmyelinated nerves in the CNS vs. those in the PNS

A

Those in the PNS are still enveloped by cytoplasmic processes of a Schwann cell. These cells act as phagocytes and remove neuronal debris in the PNS after injury. In the CNS, they are bare and not ensheathed by oligodendrocytes

142
Q

Cholinergic transmission

A

All preganglionic autonomic neurons

All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons

Sweat gland and blood vessel sympathetic postganglionic neurons

143
Q

Adrenergic postganglionic neurons

A

Norepinephrine, noradrenaline

All other sympathetic postganglionic neurons

144
Q

How is norepinephrine removed from the synapse

A

Direct sodium driven reuptake into the nerve terminals

145
Q

What is the Ach receptor in the somatic NS

A

Nicotinic receptor N1

146
Q

What is the ach receptor in the postganglionic neuron and terminal receptor in parasympathetic innervation

A

N2 Ach receptor in the postganglionic, muscarinic receptor in the target

147
Q

What is the Ach receptor in the sympathetic postganglionic neuron and target

A

N2 receptor in postganglionic, Adrenergic norepinephrine receptor in the target organ

148
Q

Except for nicotinic Ach receptor, how do autonomic receptors exert their effects

A

Membrane-bound G proteins

149
Q

Nicotinic vs. Muscarinic Ach receptors -

A

Nicotinic are excitatory, M receptors stimulate second messengers that have varying effects

150
Q

B1 receptors are found where

A

In the heart

151
Q

B2 receptors are found where

A

Bronchiole relaxation, inhibitory

152
Q

A1 and A2 receptors

A

These are epinephrine or norepinephrine receptors, a1 is excitatory and a2 is inhibitory

153
Q

DHPR

A

The voltage sensor in T-tubules that changes shape with depolarization ona results in conformational changes of the ryanodine receptor in the SR that opens the gated Ca release channels

154
Q

Transverse and longitudinal components of the intercalated disc of cardiac myocytes

A

Transverse: fascia adherens, macula adherens

Lateral - gap junction, providing ionic continuity

155
Q

EC coupling differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle

A

In cardiac muscle, the Ca channels and voltage sensory interact indirectly via calcium ions with the ca release channels of the SR

156
Q

What are the astrocytes in white vs. gray matter called

A

Protoplasmic astrocytes (gray)

Fibrous astrocytes (white)

157
Q

What morphologic type of neuron is found in dorsal root ganglia

A

Pseudounipolar neurons

158
Q

How can you distinguish a dorsal root ganglion cell from an autonomic ganglion cell

A

Autonomic ganglion cells have an eccentric nucleus and are only partially surrounded by satellite cells

DRG cells have no synapses and a central nucleus, and are completely surrounded by satellite cells

159
Q

What contains the L-type receptors

A

T-tubules

160
Q

What does cAMP do to the heart

A

Increases contractility by increasing calcium, increasing the force of contraction

It also increases Ca reuptake by the SR, leading to an increased rate of relaxation

161
Q

What role does calmodulin play in smooth muscle contraction

A

Calcium binds to calmodulin which then activates MLCK, Which then phosphorylates the myosin light chain

162
Q

In the airway, what is the pathway for transepithelial Cl movement

A

The paracellular pathway, the Cl moves through the tight junctions

Cell and Tissue Biology (2 decks)

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