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A&P 2 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Atherosclerosis?

A

Plague build-up in the systemic circuit which lowers blood to cells of the tissues in the extremities

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2
Q

Coronary Artery Disease

A

Plague build-up in the coronary circuit which lowers oxygen to the cardiac muscle cells

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3
Q

Hemodynamics

A

The physiology of blood flow

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4
Q

Why is blood flow necessary?

A

Necessary for the cells to receive nutrients like oxygen and glucose

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5
Q

How do you calculate pressure?

A

Pressure = Cardiac Output X Resistance

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6
Q

What is the relationship between resistance and cardiac output?

A

Inversely related, so if R goes up, CO will go down

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7
Q

What is the relationship between cardiac output and pressure?

A

Directly related, so if CO increases, R will increase

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8
Q

Pressure

A

Force that is exerted on the inner wall of the vessel; it is the push exerted on the tunica

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9
Q

What happens to pressure when the heart contracts?

A

Pressure increases

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10
Q

What is resistance?

A

Opposition to blood flow

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11
Q

What is blood viscosity?

A

How thick the blood is

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12
Q

What does high viscosity lead to?

A

High resistance which leads to high pressure

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13
Q

What does low viscosity lead to?

A

Low resistance which leads to low pressure

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14
Q

What changes blood viscosity?

A

Red cell mass, red cell deformity, plasma levels, amount of water, number of cells in the blood

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15
Q

What happens to blood viscosity when water levels decrease?

A

Blood viscosity increases

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16
Q

What happens to resistance as blood vessel radius increases?

A

As a vessel’s radius increases, resistance decreases

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17
Q

How does the sympathetic system affect vessel diameter?

A

Causes vasoconstriction; resistance goes up, pressure goes up

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18
Q

How does the parasympathetic system affect vessel diameter?

A

Causes vasodilation; resistance goes down, pressure down

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19
Q

How does blood vessel length affect resistance?

A

Greater blood vessel length, greater the resistance

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20
Q

What increases blood vessel length?

A

Increase in adipose tissue

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21
Q

How does obstruction of blood vessel affect resistance?

A

Increases resistance

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22
Q

Systolic Pressure

A

Pressure in the artery when the ventricles are contracting: top number

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23
Q

Diastolic Pressure

A

Pressure in the artery when the ventricles are relaxing: bottom number

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24
Q

What is mean arterial pressure?

A

Average pressure in the systemic circuit during a complete cardiac cycle

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25
Q

How do you calculate MAP (mean arterial pressure)?

A

MAP = diastolic pressure + 1/3 (systolic pressure-diastolic pressure)

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26
Q

What organ systems are involved in short -term regulation of blood pressure?

A

Autonomic Nervous System and Endocrine System

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27
Q

Short term effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System on blood pressure

A

Increases Heart Rate, Increases Stroke Volume, and causes vasoconstriction

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28
Q

Short term effects of the Parasympathetic Nervous System on blood pressure

A

Decreases heart rate, no effect on stroke volume, and causes vasodilation

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29
Q

Short term effects of the NE/E hormones on blood pressure

A

Increases heart rate, increases stroke volume, and increases resistance

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30
Q

Short term effects of the Thyroid hormones on blood pressure

A

Causes up-regulation of the receptors for NE/E, so it causes increase of heart rate, increase of stroke volume, and increase of resistance

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31
Q

Short term effects of Angiotensin II hormone on blood pressure

A

Most powerful vasoconstrictor; causes an increase in resistance

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32
Q

Short term effects of ADH on blood pressure

A

Increases resistance

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33
Q

Short term effects of ANP on blood pressure

A

Decreases resistance, causes vasodilation

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34
Q

What organ systems are involved in long-term regulation of blood pressure?

A

Endocrine and Urinary

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35
Q

Long-term effects of ADH on blood pressure

A

Increases reabsorption of water in the kidney, increases blood volume

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36
Q

Long-term effects of Angiotensin II and Aldosterone on blood pressure

A

Increases reabsorption of sodium in the kidney (water follows by osmosis), increases blood volume

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37
Q

Long-term effects of ANP on blood pressure

A

Causes excretion of sodium into the urine (water follows by osmosis), decreases blood volume

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38
Q

Erythrocyte

A

Red blood cell

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39
Q

What type of shape is an erythrocyte

A

Biconcave disc

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40
Q

Why are erythrocytes biconcave?

A

Gives the erythrocytes a large surface-to-volume ratio, which is critical for gas exchange

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41
Q

What is hemoglobin?

A

Proteins within erythrocytes that carry oxygen

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42
Q

What is a heme group?

A

An iron-containing compound that is bound to a polypeptide subunit inside a hemoglobin

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43
Q

Antigen found in Type A Blood

A

A antigens

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44
Q

Antigen found in Type B Blood

A

B antigens

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45
Q

Antigen found in Type AB Blood

A

A and B antigens

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46
Q

Antigen found in Type O Blood

A

Neither A nor B antigens present

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47
Q

Antibodies found in AB+ Blood

A

No antibodies found

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48
Q

Antibodies found in AB- Blood

A

Anti-Rh antibodies only after the blood comes into contact with the Rh antigen

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49
Q

Antibodies found in B- Blood

A

Anti-A and Anti-Rh antibodies only after the blood encounters the Rh antigen

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50
Q

Antibodies found in O- Blood

A

Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh antibodies only after the blood encounters the Rh antigen

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51
Q

Antibodies found in A+ Blood

A

Anti-B antibodies

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52
Q

Antibodies found in A- Blood

A

Anti-B and Anti-Rh antibodies only after the blood encounters the Rh antigen

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53
Q

Antibodies found in B+ Blood

A

Anti-A antibodies

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54
Q

Antibodies found in O+ Blood

A

Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

55
Q

What happens if a person were to receive a blood type that has antigens that match their antibodies?

A

The blood would agglutinate

56
Q

What is hemolysis?

A

Rupture of erythrocytes

57
Q

What is hemolytic disease of the newborn?

A

When an Rh-negative mother carries and gives birth to an Rh-positive fetus. During birth, fetal erythrocytes enter the mother’s blood, which stimulates her immune system to produce anti-Rh antibodies. In subsequent pregnancies, maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta into the blood of the fetus, hemolyzing (rupturing) fetal erythrocytes if they are Rh+ and potentially killing the fetus.

58
Q

What is a transfusion reaction?

A

Agglutination of the donated erythrocytes due to the blood type not being match which causing the donor erythrocytes to be damaged

59
Q

What is an universal donor?

A

An individual with type O- blood who is able to donate blood to any blood type due to the absence of A, B, and Rh antigens on his or her erythrocytes

60
Q

What is an universal recipient?

A

A person with type AB+ blood that can receive blood from any blood type due to the absence of anti-a, anti-b, and anti-Rh antibodies

61
Q

What is hematopoiesis?

A

Process that produces the formed elements in the blood and occurs in the red bone marrrow

62
Q

What are hematopoietic stem cells?

A

Cells located in red bone marrow that can become any type of formed element of the blood

63
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

Process of differentiation and maturation of erythrocytes

64
Q

What is Reticulocyte?

A

An immature erythrocyte released into the circulation that still has a nucleus and some organelles

65
Q

Describe the regulation of erythropoiesis

A

Blood oxygen levels decrease below normal range
Kidney cells detect a low oxygen level
Kidneys produce more erythropoietin and release it into the blood
Production of erythrocytes increases
Blood level of oxygen rises to normal

66
Q

What happens when Erythrocytes die?

A

Erythrocytes become trapped in the sinusoids of the spleen
Spleen macrophages digest erythrocytes
Hemoglobin is broken down into amino acids, iron ions, and bilirubin
Hemoglobin is broken down into amino acids, iron ions, and bilirubin
Hemoglobin is broken down into amino acids, iron ions, and bilirubin

67
Q

What is bilirubin?

A

A yellow-orange pigment that is formed by the liver because of heme breakdown and is excreted in the bile. Causes the yellow pigment of urine and skin during liver failure

68
Q

What is anemia?

A

Decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

69
Q

Causes of anemia

A

Decreased Hemoglobin
Decreased hematocrit
Abnormal hemoglobin

70
Q

What is iron-deficiency anemia?

A

Anemia caused due to inadequate dietary iron, reduced intestinal absorption of dietary iron, or slow blood loss (including menstruation)

71
Q

What happens when there are not functional iron-containing heme groups?

A

Erythroblasts cannot make hemoglobin

72
Q

What is pernicious anemia?

A

Anemia as a result to a vitamin B12 deficiency, which is important for red blood cell production

73
Q

What is hemolytic anemia?

A

Excessive erythrocyte destruction; most common in chemo patients

74
Q

What is aplastic anemia?

A

When the red bone marrow stops producing erythrocytes; caused by certain medications, or exposure to ionizing radiation

75
Q

What is sickle-cell disease/anemia?

A

Abnormal hemoglobin that are sickled shape and can get stuck in the capillary beds

76
Q

What is hydrostatic pressure?

A

Force that a fluid exerts on the wall of the blood vessels

77
Q

What is colloid osmotic pressure?

A

An osmotic pressure gradient created by the plasma proteins; water moves into the plasma from the interstitial fluid due to plasma’s higher colloid osmotic pressure

78
Q

What is osmotic pressure?

A

Force that would need to be applied to stop water from moving into the cell by osmosis

79
Q

Filtration

A

The movement of a fluid by a force such as hydrostatic pressure

80
Q

What is net filtration pressure?

A

Difference between the filtration and reabsorption forces in the capillary

81
Q

How does filtration occur in the capillaries?

A

Substances are transferred from the blood inside of the capillary to the interstitial space

82
Q

How does reabsorption occur in the capillaries?

A

Movement of substances from the interstitial fluid to the blood in the capillaries

83
Q

What is HPc?

A

Push of blood on the capillary wall; occurs inside the capillary; is filtration

84
Q

What is HPif?

A

Push of interstitial fluid on the wall of the capillary; occurs outside the capillary; is reabsorption

85
Q

What is OPc?

A

Pull on the H2O of large proteins in the blood; occurs outside the capillary; is reabsorption

86
Q

What is OPif?

A

Pull on H20 of small solutes in the interstitial fluid; occurs outside the capillary; is reabsoprtion

87
Q

What two factors cause Edema?

A

Excessive Filtration
Inadequate Reabsorption

88
Q

Normal NFPbed

A

6 mmHg

89
Q

Normal/ Accepted MAP values

A

95 mmgHg

90
Q

What is the difference between elastic and muscular arteries?

A
91
Q

Causes of Atherosclerosis

A

High cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, obesity, physical activity levels

92
Q

Treatment of Atherosclerosis

A

Medications, stents, weight loss, change of diet

93
Q

As pressure increases, how does blood flow change?

A

Blood flow will increase

94
Q

As resistance increases, how does blood flow change

A

Blood flow will decrease

95
Q

As cross-sectional area increases, how does velocity of blood flow change

A

Blood flow will decrease

96
Q

Where is velocity the slowest in the blood vessels?

A

The capillaries because it allows more time for diffusion to occur in the capillary bed

97
Q

How does an increase in Resistance affect BP?

A

Blood pressure will increase

98
Q

How does an increase of blood volume affect BP?

A

Will cause blood pressure to increase

99
Q

What things affect blood pressure?

A

Cardiac Output
Blood Volume
Viscosity of Blood
Resistance

100
Q

How is BP different in the Pulmonary vs. Systemic circuits?

A

Systemic circuit has a much higher pressure than the pulmonary circuit since it has to travel further distances

101
Q

How do we calculate pulse pressure?

A

Systolic- Diastolic

102
Q

How is venous return to the heart assisted?

A

Venous Valves
Skeletal muscle pump
Respiratory Pump
Vasoconstriction

103
Q

What is Hypovolemic Shock?

A

When there is a decreased amount of blood

104
Q

What causes Hypovolemic Shock?

A

Loss of blood or loss of water in the body; normally from trauma

105
Q

What is Cardiogenic Shock?

A

When there is decreased cardiac output

106
Q

What is Anaphylactic/ Septic Shock?

A

When there is excessive vasodilation

107
Q

What causes Cardiogenic Shock?

A

A lack of oxygen to your heart and heart attack

108
Q

What causes Anaphylactic/ Septic Shock?

A

Bacterial infections that lead to sepsis, asthma attacks, anaphylactic reactions

109
Q

Fenestrated Capillary

A

Capillary with small pores that allow diffusion to take place quickly. Located where substances must rapidly enter or existed the blood

110
Q

Continuous capillaries

A

Capillary where the endothelial cells are tightly joined by junctions; least leaky and permit the fewest substance to enter or exit the blood. Example is the blood brain barrier

111
Q

Sinusoidal Capillaries

A

Capillary where there are large pores in the endothelial cells; leakiest capillaries; located in organs and tissues like the liver, spleen, and bone marrow; Allow for the transfer of large substances such as blood cells

112
Q

Microcirculation

A

Total blood flow that occurs in the capillaries

113
Q

Thoroughfare Channel

A

Allows for blood flow straight from the metarteriole to the venule without passing through the true capillaries; sympathetic nervous system uses this for quicker gas exchange

114
Q

Myogenic Mechanism

A

Autoregulatory mechanism in the blood vessels by which the degree of stretch of the vessel wall triggers reflexes that maintain blood flow to a tissue

115
Q

What is tissue perfusion?

A

Blood flow to a tissue through a capillary bed

116
Q

What happens to arterioles and tissue perfusion via the myogenic mechanism when blood pressure increases or decreases

A

When blood pressure increases, stretch activation of smooth muscle causes constriction of the arterioles, which restrains the increased blood pressure to keep tissue perfusion constant

117
Q

Which chemicals produce changes in tissue perfusion? How do they affect tissue perfusion?

A

Carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions which cause vasodilation and causes tissue perfusion to increase; oxygen has the opposite affect

118
Q

How is the pattern of blood flow in the coronary circulation different from that in the rest of the systemic circuit

A

Coronary blood flow decreases during systole and increases during diastole

119
Q

What is Hyperemia

A

Increased blood flow

120
Q

In which direction does the hydrostatic pressure gradient drive the movement of water in a capillary?

A

Water is driven out of the capillary and into the interstitial fluid

121
Q

In which direction does water move when an osmotic gradient is present?

A

Draws water into the capillary

122
Q

Where are common pulse points?

A

Carotid artery, radial artery, brachial artery, femoral artery

123
Q

Which substances does blood transport through the body?

A

Gases, solutes, nutrients, hormones, and waste

124
Q

Symptoms of Anemia;

A

Pallor, fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and elevated reticulocyte

125
Q

Metabolic Mechanism

A

When there is an increase in metabolic activity which causes low oxygen and an increase in carbon dioxide. The arterioles vasodilate to feed more blood into the capillary; when CO2 levels are high, this mechanism lowers pH to be more acidic

126
Q

What is the Skeletal Muscle Pump?

A

Muscle contraction or relaxation; when the muscle contracts, blood is squeezed upwards toward the heart

127
Q

What is the Respiratory Muscle Pump?

A

Movement of the diaphragm during breathing creates blood flow; inhalation increases blood into the thoracic veins

128
Q

What happens when there is low venous return?

A

Low venous return causes a decrease in EDV which decreases preload causing SV to decrease CO then pressure decreases

129
Q

What is a Baroreceptor?

A

Type of mechanoreceptor that helps to regulate blood pressure by detecting pressure changes in the blood vessels

130
Q

What is a Stroke?

A

Damage to the brain caused by a disruption of blood flow

131
Q

Causes of strokes?

A

Blockage of the brain’s arteries due to a clot
Loss of blood due to a ruptured cerebral artery

132
Q

Symptoms of a Stroke

A

Weakness/paralysis, loss of vision, difficulty speaking/understanding speech, headache

133
Q

Risk factors for stroke

A

Hypertension, atherosclerosis (particularly in the carotid arteries), diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, hypercholesterolemia, and atrial fibrillation

134
Q

Treatment of a Stroke

A

Medications to dissolve the clot and thin the blood or possibly surgery

A&P 2 (1 decks)

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