Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Psy 459 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

(83 cards)

Start Studying
1
Q

What are the catecholamines?

A

Dopamine
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What are the psychoactive drugs that directly affect catecholamine receptors?

A

Methamphetamine/amphetamine
Ritalin(ADHD)
Adderall
Cocaine
Buspar(anti-anxiety)
MAO inhibitors (antidepressants)
L-dopa(Parkinson’s disease)
Some anti psychotic medications

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What do the neurotransmitters have in common?

A

All neurotransmitters are directly or indirectly derived from amino acids or are amino acids, and all amino acids share the same core structures(amine group, and carboxyl)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Where are all catecholamines derived from?

A

From the amino acid tyrosine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is tyrosine?

A

It is a non essential amino acid. It is derived from essential amino acid phenylalanine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the synthesis?

A

Tyrosine is synthesized by tyrosine hydroxylase(TH) to make Dopa (addition of hydroxyl group)-this is considered the rate limiting enzyme
Dopa is synthesized by aromatic amino acid decarboxylase(AADC) to make dopamine ( removal of carboxyl group)
dopamine is synthesized by Dopamine Beta-hydroxylase (DBH) to make norepinephrine (addition of hydroxyl group)
Norepinephrine is synthesized by Phenyl-ethanonolamine-N-methyltransferase(PNMT) to make epinephrine( addition of a methyl group)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What happens after synthesis?

A

Catecholamines are packaged into vesicles.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is the role of active transport?

A

Active transport processes keep high concentrations of catecholamines inside the vesicles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is the transporter?

A

Vesicular Monoamine Transporter-2 (VMAT-2)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What use a VMAT-2?

A

Catecholaminergic neurons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is inhibited by autoreceptors on neuron cell bodies, terminals, and dendendrites?

A

Catecholamines release is inhibited by autoreceptors on neuron cell bodies, terminals, and dendrites.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is the role of this autoreceptors?

A

They enhance the opening voltage-gated K+ channels=outflow
This shortens the duration of action potential and reduces Ca+ influx and vesicle exocytosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

How does catecholamines inactivation occur?

A

Catecholamines inactivation occurs reuptake and degradation in the presynaptic terminal and in the synaptic cleft.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What happens in the Synaptic cleft?

A

Breakdown of the catecholamines by monoamine oxidase (MAO Aand B)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are MAO?

A

MAO inhibitors are a class of antidepressants medications
Breakdown by COMT in synaptic cleft

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Dopamine pathways in the brain:
Dopamine and movement

A

Nigrostriatal tract: axons in the substantia nigra extend to the basal ganglia. Caudate putamen and globes pallidas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Role of the substantia nigra?

A

Facilitates voluntary movement
Loss of neurons in the substantia nigra leads to Parkinson’s disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Dopamine and Reward

A

Mesolimbic dopamine pathway: from the ventral tegmental area to various structures of the lambic system.
It’s the primary reward pathway.
This pathway is thought to contribute to the development of addiction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Dopamine pathways

A

Mesocortical dopamine pathway from VTA to the prefrontal cerebral cortex, cognition of reward
Also known as a reward pathway
Contribute to the development of addiction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Brain reward center

A

Red: high dopamine normal pleasure and interest
Yellow: medium dopamine difficulty feeling joy or pleasure
Green: low of dopamine, lack of pleasure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are catecholamines?

A

Adrenal gland: Catecholamines are also hormones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is epinephrine?

A

Epinephrine is secretory products of the adrenal gland
“Flight-or-fight response”
Short term stress hormone
Prepare the body for strenuous activity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Norepinephrine as a “stress hormone” in the periphery
Stress hormones

A

Breathing rate increases
Blood flow to skeletal muscles increases
Intestinal muscles relax
Pupil dilate
Blood pressure in arteries increases
Blood sugar levels increase
Heart rate increases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is the role of the epi-pen?

A

Acts locally and reaches general circulation
Relaxes muscles of the airways
Increases vasoconstriction, this reduces swelling
Increases heart rate, this increases O2 in take

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
What is the norepinephrine synthesis?
Locus coeruleus(LC) in the pons: dense collections of NE neurons These fibers extend to nearly all areas of the brain, cerebellum, and spinal cord
26
What is the composition of the Acetylcholine?
Acetylene group and choline
27
What are the drugs that affect acetylcholine?
Nicotine Drug treatments for nicotine dependence (mecamylamine, nicotine-replacement therapy, chantix) Most drug therapies for Alzheimer’s disease Atropine: a drug antidote for nerve gas poisoning Scopolamine: an antiemetic, hallucinogenic
28
What is the synthesis of acetylcholine?
ACh is formed in a single step from 2 precursors: choline and acetyl coenzyme A Most choline comes from consumed foods with natural fats (meat, eggs, vegetables…. Actively transported across BBB) Acetylcholine CoA is produced during metabolism of sugar
29
How is the synthesis of ACh catalyzed?
Choline acetyltransferase(ChAT) catalyzes the synthesis the synthesis of ACh and is found only in neurons that use ACh ad their transmitter. ChAT transferse the acetyl group from acetyl CoA to choline.
30
How is the ACh stored?
ACh is stored in vesicles at axon terminals It moves into vesicles via vesicular ACh transporters (VAChT) in the vesicle membrane)
31
How is ACh inactivated?
It is inactivated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which breaks it down to choline and acetic acid.
32
Where can AChE be found?
It can be found in presynaptic and postsynaptic cells Most choline in the cleft after ACh breakdown by AChE is taken back into the cholinergic nerve terminal by a choline transporter.
33
Some compounds cause irreversible inhibition of AChE
Very toxic varieties are “nerve gases” Sarin and Soman These are derived from pesticides in 1930’s Weak, reversible AChE inhibitors are used as insecticides Human made, reversible inhibitors used to treat Alzheimer’s disease
34
What is the organization and function of the cholinergic system?
ACh is found at: Neuromuscular junctions The autonomic nervous system It is also found isolated within the brain Fibers originate and stay in brain
35
Where ACh can also be found?
In three primary areas which include both projecting neurons and interneurons: Projecting ACh cell bodies: The basal forebrain The brainstem ACh interneurons The striatum
36
What are interneurons?
They are in the striatum. Regulation of movement depends in part on the balance between ACh and Dopamine (DA) In Parkinson’s disease, DA is low and the resulting neurotransmitters imbalance contributes to motor symptoms (there is too much ACh) Anti cholinergic drugs are sometimes prescribed instead of L-dopa in the early stages of Parkinson’s disease
37
What are the ACh receptors?
Two families of cholinergic receptors: Nicotine receptors: respond to the agonist nicotine, an alkaloid found in the tobacco plant Muscarinic receptors: respond to muscarine, an alkaloid first isolated from fly agaric mushrooms
38
How does the nicotine ACh receptors work?
Nicotine receptors are ionotropic(having) an ion channel When ACh binds, the channel opens and Na+, K+, and Ca+ enter the neurons or muscle cell, which depolarizes the cell membrane Nicotine receptors mediate fast excitatory responses in both CNS and the PNS
39
What is the neuronal alpha-4-beta-2 receptor?
Most abundant subtype of receptor Permeable to Na+ and Ca2+ Most important for relaxing effects of nicotine in regular smokers. Anti anxiety Chantix
40
What are the drugs that directly affect NMDA receptors?
Alcohol Benzodiazepines Ketamine (aka special K) Phencyclidine(aka PCP) Dextromethorphan Nitrous oxide Some anti-convulsant medications Many chemicals involved in “huffing” 1 F.D.A- approved treatment for Alzheimer’s disease
41
What are amino acids?
Building blocks of proteins, neurotransmitters Directly actions as neurotransmitters (excitatory, inhibitory )
42
What amino acid are inhibitory ?
GABA Taurine Beta-alanine
43
What amino acid are excitatory?
Glutamate Aspartame Cysteine Homocysteate
44
What do GABA and glutamate have in common?
Act at both ionotropic and metabotropic receptors Fastest effects due to change in resting membrane potential Most abundant type of neurotransmitter (70% of all neurons in CNS utilize AANT’s)
45
What do all neuron contain and why?
All neuron contain amounts of glutamate. Glutamatergic neurons use glutamate as transmitter, and have higher concentrations of These neurons are thought to segregate the glutamate used for transmission from the glutamate used for other functions
46
Where is glutamate synthesized from?
Glutamate is synthesized from glutamine using glutaminase
47
What do EAAT and Vglut mean?
Vglut: Vesicular glutamate transporter EAAT: excitatory amino acid transporter
48
What are the 3 types of ionotropic glutamate receptors?
AMPA receptor: named for the selective agonist AMPA, a synthetic amino acid analog NMDA receptor: named for the agonist NMDA, a synthetic amino acid. Kainate receptor: named for the selective agonist Kainic acid.
49
What is the of the ionotropic glutamate receptors?
It depolarize the postsynaptic cell membrane, which leads to an excitatory response
50
What is the role of the AMPA and kainate receptors?
AMPA and Kainate receptors ——flow of Na+ depolarizes
51
What is the role of the NMDA receptors?
NMDA receptors allow both Na+ and Ca2+ to pass, Ca2+ also activates a second messenger
52
What are the unique characteristics of NMDA receptors?
Flow of both Ca2+ and Na+ Steps in NMDA receptors activation: 1. Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors 2. Na+ flows into neuron through AMPA receptor 3. This causes Mg2+ to “pop out” of the channel in NMDA receptors 4. Glutamate and co-agonist binds to NMDA receptor- it opens
53
What happens with the influx of Ca+ ions through NMDA channels?
The influx of Ca2+ ions through NMDA channels activates several protein kinases The end result is long term potentiation (memory formation)
54
What linked NMDA receptors with learning?
3 other lines of evidence have linked NMDA receptors with learning: Treatment with NMDA receptor antagonist leads to impaired learning. 1. Alcohol 2. Benzodiazepines 3. Ketamine 4. Phencyclidine
55
How many metabotropic receptors does glutamate have?
Glutamate has 8 metabotropic receptors designated mGluR1 to mGluR8 mGluR1 “Family”: mGluR1 and mGluR5 (q-linked ) mGluR 2 “Family”: Gi-linked, presynaptic mGluR 3 “Family”: Gi linked, presynaptic
56
How are metabotropic receptors?
They are widely distributed throughout the brain
57
The role of the metabotropic receptors?
They participate in locomotor activity, motor coordination, cognition, mood, and pain perception. mGluR drugs are being developed for treatment of many neuropsychiatric disorders
58
What are the major inhibitory amino acid transmitters?
GABA and Glycine
59
How important is inhibitory transmission?
Inhibitory transmission is just as important as excitatory, if GABA-A receptors are blocked, convulsions and death can result.
60
How is GABA synthesized?
GABA is synthesized only by GABAergic neurons. It is made from glutamate and catalyzed by glutamic acid decarboxylase
61
What are the actions with GABA?
GABA moves into vesicles via vesicular GABA vesicular transporters VGAT GABA is removed from the synaptic cleft by 3 different transporters GAT-1, GAT-2 , and GAT-3
62
Textual description of GABA synthesis
Glutamate from astrocytes is taken up by glutamine transporter Glutamine is converted to glutamate by glutaminase Glutamate is converted to GABA by glutamic acid decarboxylase GABA is transported into neuron and astrocyte by GABA transporter Astrocyte GABA is reverse metabolized to glutamate by GABA transminase Glutamate is metabolized to glutamine synthetase, which is pumped out of astrocyte
63
How many receptors do GABA receptors?
GABA A receptor- ionotropic GABA B receptor- metabotropic
64
The role of GABA A receptor?
GABA A receptor channels allow Cl- to move from outside to inside the cell This causes hyper polarization and inhibition of the postsynaptic cell Each receptor consists of five subunits, of various combinations of four types Drugs affecting GABA A receptors bind to different subunits
65
What are the GABA A receptors in clinical pharmacology?
Diazepam: classic benzodiazepines used to treat anxiety and alcohol withdrawal Agonist at GABA A receptors Antagonist of AMPA receptors (Topamax) Inhibit GABA transminase Also affects Na+ channels (Depakote)
66
What are the psychoactive substances that interact with serotonin systems?
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRIs) Methamphetamine Methylenedioxymethamphetamine(ecstasy) Lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD) Psylocybin(magic mushrooms) Mescaline(cactus) Canthinones(khat shrub)
67
What is serotonin?
Serotonin is also known as 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine) Known as an indoleamine It is a neurotransmitter that has a wide range of behavioral and physiological functions including regulation of mood, sleep, hunger, anxiety, pain, and learning memory
68
How is 5-HT in the brain?
90% exists in the GI tract Regulates intestinal movement Only 2% is actually found in the central nervous system Neurons must make their own 5-HT as it does not cross the BBB
69
Where does serotonin come from?
It is derived from tryptophan
70
What is tryptophan?
Tryptophan is an essential amino. It therefore must be part of an organisms diet. Availability of tryptophan affects the rate of 5-HT synthesis. Tryptophan can’t cross BBB by diffusion, must be actively transported by large amino acid transporter(LAT) Competes with amino acids for transport into brain
71
What is the role of the insulin?
1. When large amounts of carbohydrates (sugars, starches) are eaten, insulin release is triggered 2. One of the things insulin does is activate the LAT Increases uptake of essential amino acids 3. Consumption of foods rich in tryptophan (meats) equal more tryptophan gets in brain via LAT Some of this gets converted to melatonin
72
5-HT in the brain (Raphe Nuclei)
In the CNS, neurons that produce 5-HT are found in clusters- in the raphe nuclei of the midbrain, pons, and medulla (brainstem) These clusters project to broadly and are most inhibitory
73
What does raphe mean?
It means “seam” Rostral raphe group Dorsal Linear Median Caudal raphe group Magnus Obscurus Pallidus
74
What is the synthesis of serotonin?
L-tryptophan to L-5-Hydroxytryptophan by (tryptophan hydroxylase) L-5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) to 5-Hydroxytryptamine by aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase
75
The storage, release, and inactivation of serotonin
Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) Transported into presynaptic vesicles just like catecholamines Autoreceptors control release (negative feedback) Mechanism of signaling inactivation is reuptake by SERT (the 5-HT transporter)— SSRIs Monoamine oxidase (MAO) MAO breakdown in pre-synaptic terminal after reuptake
76
Concentration of 5-HIAA in the CSF
Concentration of 5-HIAA in the CSF is often used to determine the association between 5-HT and psychiatric disorders
77
The 5-HT receptors
There are at least 14 receptors for 5-HT All are metabotropic/ G-coupled, but one Classified into 7 groups (5-HT 1-7) based on their pharmacological profiles
78
What is the receptors 5-HT1A?
5-HT 1A: Gi- the autoreceptor Reduce cAMP synthesis by inhibiting adenylyl cyclase; or increase opening of K+ channels and membrane hyperpolarization
79
What is the receptors 5-HT2A?
5-HT-2A: Gq Activate the IP3 second messenger system. This results in increases Ca2+ levels in postsynaptic cells and also activates protein kinase C (PKC)
80
Modulation of 5-HT 2A receptors?
Agonists at this receptor can be hallucinogenic in humans (LSD) Antagonist of this receptor (clozapine and risperidone) have been used as antipsychotics
81
What is the 5-HT3 receptor?
It is a ligand gated ion channel that is permeable to Na+, K+, and Ca2+
82
Modulation of 5-HT3 receptors?
1. Toxins/irritants in the stomach such as: Cancer chemotherapy , HIV medications Other nasty things ingested Stimulate release of 5-HT in the gut, which stimulates gut 5-HT3 receptors and induces nausea 2. Toxins in blood such as: Medications, poisons, industrial chemics Stimulate serotonin release in Area Postrema (5-HT3 receptors) 5-HT3 antagonists such as ondansetron (zofran and granisetron (Kytril) are used to treat the nausea
83
What are the serotonin syndrome?
Too much serotonin is bad and can be deadly Causes: usually by taking a combination of serotonergic drugs Very important to be aware of medications you are taking Symptoms: confusion, agitation, headaches, blood pressure changes, accelerated heart rate, loss of muscle coordination, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, shivering, heavy sweating Treatment: IV fluids, cease medication, drugs that block 5-HT production

Psy 459 (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions