Exam #2 Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
Learning
A
takes a quantitative approach to the relationship between an organism’s past experience and current behavior
2
Q
Memory
A
theories include unobservable mental processes
3
Q
Nonassociative Learning
A
the response to a single stimulus changes when it is repeated
4
Q
Associative Learning
A
learning about relationships between events
5
Q
Social Learning
A
learning by instruction or by observing the behavior of others
6
Q
Habituation
A
decreased response after repeated exposure to a stimulus; especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding (ex: flinching when there is a sudden sound…sound keeps occurring but nothing bad happens)
7
Q
Dishabituation
A
increased response because of a change in something familiar
8
Q
Sensitization
A
a threatening or painful stimulus leads to increased response to a subsequent stimulus (the same or different stimulus)
9
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
learning that one stimulus predicts another; a previously neutral stimulus (sound of a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (presentation of food)
10
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
learning the relationship between a response and the consequences of that response
11
Q
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A
naturally produces a particular response
12
Q
Unconditioned Response (UR)
A
reliable response to unconditioned stimulus (US)
13
Q
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A
Initially neutral and produces no response
14
Q
Conditioned Response (CR)
A
resembles the unconditioned response (UR) after conditioning
15
Q
Acquisition
A
phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented together
16
Q
Extinction
A
conditioned stimulus (CS) occurs without the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the learned response (conditioned response) is gradually eliminated
17
Q
Spontaneous Recovery
A
tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
18
Q
Second-Order Conditioning
A
pair a new neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus (CS). Afterwards, it will also produce the conditioned response (CR)
19
Q
Generalization
A
stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) produces conditioned response (CR) too
20
Q
Discrimination
A
learning that a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) is NOT followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US), so the conditioned response (UR) stops occurring
21
Q
Simple motor responses
A
eye blinks, breathing rate
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Q
Activities of glands & internal organs
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salivation, release of hormones, heart-rate, etc
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Q
Emotional Responses
A
contains elements of both simple motor responses and activities of glands and internal organs
24
Q
Reinforcement
A
a stimulus or event that increases the behavior that led to it; indicates what the desired behavior is
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Punishment
a stimulus or event that decreases the behavior that led to it; indicates what NOT to do
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Positive Operant Conditioning
presence of something
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Negative Operant Conditioning
absence of something
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Primary Reinforcer
satisfies biological needs
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Secondary Reinforcer
associated with or predicts a primary reinforcer; can help bridge a time gap between behavior and primary reinforcer
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Shaping
rewarding successive approximations to desired behavior
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Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
(part of midbrain) where neurons make dopamine
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Fixed Ratio Schedule (FRS)
reward is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
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Variable Ratio Schedule (VRS)
reward is delivered after some average number of responses - but there is variability around the average
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Fixed Interval Schedule (FIS)
a response will produce a reward after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reward
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Variable Interval Schedule (VIS)
a response will produce a reward at some average amount of time after the last reward - but there is variability around the average
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Three-term contingency
discriminative stimulus (context), response, reinforcer
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Superstitious Behavior
behavior increases when correlated with reinforcement, but the impact of intermittent reinforcement shows that even a weak correlation can be effective; behavior might be reinforced by a random accident/coincidence
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Latent Learning
learning without reward
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Observational Learning
imitate or model what others do (Bandura's Bobo doll experiment)
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Memory
ability to store and retrieve information over time
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Vicarious Fear Conditioning
captive monkeys who have never seen a live snake become fearful of fake snakes after observing wild monkeys responding fearfully, but do NOT become fearful of a fake rabbit after seeing a video of another monkey apparently fearful of a rabbit (biological preparedness)
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Three Stages of Memory
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
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Encoding (memory stage)
transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into a memory
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Storage (memory stage)
maintaining information in memory over time
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Retrieval (memory stage)
bringing to mind information that was previously encoded and stored
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Sensory Memory
perfect copy of the sensory input; brief duration; have to transfer information to short term memory before sensory memory fades
- Visual: 400ms
- Auditory: 3 sec
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Short term/Working Memory
the contents of consciousness; what's in your mind right now
- 30 sec if not rehearsed (duration)
- unless it is refreshed by rehearsal, repeating something to yourself
- limited capacity is about 7 items (+/- 2)
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Long Term Memory
up to a lifetime
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Iconic Memory
copy of visual input
- lasts about 400ms
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Echoic Memory
copy of auditory input
- last about 3 sec
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Visual Memory
maintains stable visual environment - we fill in gaps with no input every time we blink
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Auditory Memory
intonation - question vs sentences or sarcastic vs serious - is spread out over a few seconds
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Primacy Effect - Serial Position Curve
people have a good memory for items at the beginning of a list
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Recency Effect - Serial Position Curve
people have a good memory for item as the end of a list
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"item" for short term memory
Something that has already been interpreted, a meaningful unit; smaller bits can be chunked into larger units
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Working Memory
- short term store of information from outside world PLUS a "space" for manipulating information
- information can enter working memory from sensory memory (the outside world), long-term memory (info just retrieved), and internally created information
- correlates strongly with cognitive task performance
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Long Term Memory: Encoding
- how you think about some material when you first encounter it determines the likelihood that it will be remembered later
- thinking about the meaning of an item is better than thinking about more superficial characteristics: levels-of-processing idea
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Orthographic (levels-of-processing)
- shallow
- does the word have two e's?
- are the first & last letters in alphabetical order?
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Phonological (levels-of-processing)
- medium
- does the word rhyme with "cable"?
- does the word have 2 syllables?
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Semantic (levels-of-processing)
- deep
- is it living or non-living?
- edible or inedible?
- found indoors or outdoors?
- estimate the price
- rate pleasantness
(best bc it links current items to prior knowledge)
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Organizational Encoding
creating relationships between individual items on a list
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How memory is stored?
- learning consists of changing the strengths of the synaptic connections between neurons
- synaptic strength is the probability that A will cause B to fire
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Amnesia
deficit in long-term memory
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Organic Amnesia
memory deficit due to brain damage
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Anterograde Amnesia
difficulty learning new material AFTER the brain damage
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Retrograde Amnesia
difficulty remembering material that was learned BEFORE the brain damage
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Consolidating a Memory
making it more stable and permanent after the initial learning caused by:
- re-playing the memory - retrieving it and bringing it to mind
- can occur during sleep
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Consolidation in the Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL)
- memories are initially formed both here and in other parts of the cortex
- newly-formed memories here are strong, while being weak in other cortical areas
- output from here helps "train" other cortical areas to increase the strength of a memory in those areas
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Implicit Memory
- does not require the MTL
- a single memory is stored in one brain area or a connection between two brain areas
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Explicit Memory
- needs MTL to tie parts together
- a single memory is spread across many brain areas
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Retrieval Cue
some piece of information that brings a memory into awareness (working memory)
- part of the original memory that activates other associated parts of that memory
- can come from the outside world or be internally generated
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Transfer-appropriate Processing
access to a stored memory is best when mental operations during encoding & retrieval match
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Re-consolidation
new information can be added to a memory when it is retrieved, the mixture is then stored
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Memory Failure
- most of what's forgotten is forgotten shortly after encoding (newer memories are more fragile than older memories)
- retrieval can fail even when a memory exists, bc some retrieval cues are better than others
- similar/related memories are harder to distinguish: interference occurs during retrieval
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Ebbinghaus' Method
- learn list of nonsense syllables until he could recall everything on the list (100%)
- re-test at some later time
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Proactive Interference
old material impairs memory for new material
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Retroactive Interference
new material impairs memory for old material
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Motivated Forgetting
people can deliberately put things out of mind
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Language
system for communicating with others using signals that convey meaning and are combined according to rules of grammar
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Grammar
set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
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Modality-independent
human language can be auditory or visual
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Morpheme
the smallest meaningful unit in a language (ex: ing)
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Content Morpheme
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs (convey much of the meaning of a sentence, new items created constantly)
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Function Morpheme
preposition, pronouns, articles, -ed for past tense, -s for plural, etc (a fixed, small set of items with light meaning)
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Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound that is
recognizable as speech
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Syntax
- rules for how words can be combined from phrases and sentences
- word order
- agreement between nouns & verbs, nouns & adjectives
- each language has its own
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Deep Language Structure
meaning of a sentence
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Surface Language Structure
- how a sentence is worded
- ex: smith sent the email vs. the email was sent by smith
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When children begin to form their first words...
- produced at 10-12 months of age
- nouns (concrete objects) are formed before verbs mostly
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Fast Mapping
- children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
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When children begin to utilize two-word speech...
- occurs at around 24 months of age
- as children learn grammar, they tend to overgeneralize rules (over regularization of past tense, for instance)
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Telagraphic Speech
speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words
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When children begin to generate full simple sentences...
by three years of age
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When many aspects of the language acquisition processes are complete in children...
- by 4 to 5 years of age
- vocabulary is at least 10,000 words
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"Motherese"
simplified child-directed speech
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Nativist Explanantions
argue that humans are born ready to start acquiring a language, no "reinforcement" is necessary
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Do children learn languages better/faster than adults do/
- Vocabulary: no
- Phonology: yes
- Syntax: yes
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Which brain hemisphere does language rely on?
the LEFT hemisphere
98
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
proposal that language shapes the nature of thought (originated by Benjamin Whorf)
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Does language influence thought?
Language provides a compact code for encoding and retrieving specific memories. Often what we remember is the verbal description, not the details of an event.
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Concept
mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli
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Category
groups of concepts that belong together
102
Theories of what makes a category
- rule
- family resemblane
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Category - Rule
necessary and sufficient conditions to belong. Only work for some categories.
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Category - Family Resemblance
members of a category have features that are frequently found, but not every member has all the features.
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Prototype Theory
people make category judgements by comparing new instances to the category's prototype - the "best" or "most typical" member of a category
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Exemplar Theory
people make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the same category
