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BIOL 1407 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

Ch. 25, 27, 28, 29, 30 (453 cards)

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1
Q

How many eons is geologic time divided into

A

four eons

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2
Q

How are eons subdivided

A
  • Subdivided into eras
    *Eras are subdivided into periods
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3
Q

How long ago did a meteor hit the earth

A

4.6 million years ago

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4
Q

Geologic Record

A

standard time scale dividing Earth’s history into 4 eons

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5
Q

What are the four geological eons

A
  • Hadean
  • Archaean
  • Proterozoic
  • Phanerozoic
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6
Q

Which eon encompasses most of the time that animals have existed on Earth

A

The Phanerozoic Eon

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7
Q

What eras are in the Phanerozoic eon

A
  • Paleozoic
  • Mesozoic
  • Cenozoic
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8
Q

What can cause extinction

A

Extinction can be caused by changes to a species’ environment

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9
Q

Mass Extinction

A

When the rate of extinction has increased dramatically

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10
Q

In each of the five mass extinction events, more than _______ of Earth’s species became extinct

A

50%

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11
Q

Permian Extinction

A
  • The boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras 251 million years ago
  • Caused the extinction of about 96% of marine animals
  • Happened in a span of 500,000 years
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12
Q

What contributed to the Permian Extinction

A
  • Intense volcanism
  • Global warming from large amounts of CO2 from the volcanos
    Reduced Temperature
    Oceanic Anoxia
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13
Q

Oceanic Anoxia

A

When large parts of the ocean were depleted of oxygen creating toxic water

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14
Q

Cretaceous Extinction

A
  • 65.5 million years ago
  • Separates the Mesozoic from the Cenozoic era
  • about 50% of all marine species, plants, animals, and most dinosaurs went extinct
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15
Q

What caused the Cretaceous Extinction

A
  • Meteorite impact
  • Meteorite disturbed global climate
  • Possible Meteorite collision
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16
Q

How does extinction rate increase

A

It increases when global temperatures increase

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17
Q

Plate Tectonic Theory

A

it’s believed that Earth’s crust is composed of plates floating on Earth’s mantle

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18
Q

What are the consequences of the supercontinent Pangaea forming

A
  • Ocean basins deepened
  • Less shallow water habitats
  • Colder and drier climates inland
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19
Q

When did life emerge on Earth

A
  • Two billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon
  • When Rodinia formed
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20
Q

What period showed diversification of multicellular organisms

A

The Cambrian period

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21
Q

What compounds/elements were on early Earth’s atmosphere

A
  • Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
  • Nitrogen Gas (N2)
  • Water Vapor (H2O)
  • Hydrogen Gas (H2)
  • other Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Carbon compounds
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22
Q

What may have been the first genetic material on Earth

A

RNA

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23
Q

Microfossils

A

Fossilized forms of microscopic life

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24
Q

Stromatolite

A

Mats of cyanobacterial cells that trap mineral deposits

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25
Biomarkers
Evidence of ancient organic molecules
26
What domains did life evolve into
* Eubacteria * Archaea * Eukaryotes
27
Why were prokaryotic cells undiscovered for most of human history
They were microscopic
28
Who suggested that disease was caused by unseen organisms
Girolamo Fracastoro * Italian physician * 1546
29
Who was the first to observe and accurately describe microbial life
Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
30
What microscope allowed the study of cell substructure
Modern electron microscope
31
_____ was the oldest, structurally simplest, and most abundant form of life
Prokaryotes
32
What two domains do Prokaryotes fall into
* Bacteria * Archaea
33
What are characteristics of Prokaryotes
* Unicellular * Small cell size * Have a Nucleoid *Can Divide Cells * Genetic Recombination * Internal Compartmentalization * Flagella * Metabolic Diversity
34
Unicellular
Single-celled
35
Biofilm
Prokaryotes that are capable of forming complex communities of different species
36
Nucleoid
A single circular chromosome made up of DNA and histone like proteins
37
Genetic Recombination
Exchanging genetic material through horizontal gene transfer
38
How do Bacteria and Archaea differ
* Plasma membranes * Cell walls * DNA replication * Gene expression
39
____ have peptidoglycan on their cell wall
Bacteria
40
____ do not have peptidoglycan on their cell wall
Archaea
41
What are the three basic shapes of prokaryotic cells
* Bacillus (Rod Shaped) * Coccus (Spherical/Oval Shaped) * Spirillum (Long and helix shaped)
42
Gram Postive Bacteria
thick peptidoglycan wall * Stain purple
43
Gram Negative Bacteria
Contain less peptidoglycan * Common * Can be stained with red counterstain to appear dark pink
44
S-Layer
rigid layer found in some bacteria and archaea * can be found on the outer membrane layer
45
Capsule
Gelantinous layer found in some bacteria
46
Flagella
* Helps the bacteria move like a propeller
47
Pili
* short, hairlike structures * Found in some gram negative bacteria * Aid in attachment
48
Endospores
Thick-walled bacterial spore that can survive harsh environmental stress * Once conditions improve they can germinate
49
____ contain Ribosomes
Prokaryotes
50
Do prokaryotes reproduce sexually
No, they exchange DNA between different cells of species
51
What ways do prokaryotes exchange DNA
Exchange DNA through Horizontal gene transfer * Transformation * Transduction * Conjugation
52
Transformation Gene Transfer
DNA that is released from a dead cell is picked up by another live cell
53
Transduction Gene Transfer
When transferring DNA requires cell-to-cell contact or a viruses
54
Conjugation Gene Transfer
When genes move form one cell to another
55
Artificial Transformation
Some species don't naturally undergo transformation and need to be done by scientists in a lab Ex. E. Coli
56
Generalized Transduction
Transferring of any genes can be done between cells * A virus packages bacterial DNA and transfers it into another bacteria's DNA
57
Specialized Transduction
When a bacteriophage transfer a specific bacterial gene from one bacteria to another
58
In Conjugation, ____ may encode functions not necessary to the organism, but may provide a selective advantage
Plasmids
59
F+ _____ do/don't contain plasmids
do
60
F- _____ do/don't contain plasmids
don't
61
Explain F plasmid transfer
1) F+ donor cell produces the appendage (F pilus) that connects to the F- recipient cell 2) F pilus pulls the cells together creating a conjugation bridge allowing the transfer of genetic material 3) The F+ plasmid is copied through rolling circle replication resulting in two F+ donor cells
62
Hfr Cell
* High Frequency of Recombination (Hfr) * A cell with an integrated F+ plasmid
63
An F plasmid ____ can/cannot excise itself by reversing the integration process
can
64
An _____ inaccurate/accurate excision may occur picking up some chromosomal DNA (F plasmid)
inaccurate
65
R Plasmids
Some conjugative plasmids can acquire antibiotic resistance genes
66
How do conjugative plasmids become R plasmids
They acquire genes through transposable elements
67
Auxotroph
A bacteria that acquires a mutation that results in an inability to make an essential nutrient * Cannot survive on minimal media
68
Prototrophs
Bacteria that can grow on minimal media
69
What does CRISPR stand for
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
70
CRISPR
A form of adaptive protection against viral infections that are in the genome structures of many prokaryotes
71
Autotrophs acquire carbon from
inorganic carbon dioxide (CO2)
72
_____ obtains energy from oxidizing inorganic substances
Chemolithoautotrophs
73
____ obtains carbon in reduced forms
Heterotrophs
74
_____ transform energy by harvesting light
Photoheterotrophs
75
____ obtains organic carbon made by other organisms
Photoheterotrophs
76
_____ obtain carbon atoms and energy from organic molecules
Chemoheterotrophs
77
______ have greater diversity to perform respirations and fermentations
Prokaryotes
78
______ are restricted to ____ electron donors and oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor
eukaryotes; organic
79
_____ _____ can metabolize _____ and other compounds to recycle electron donors
Prokaryotic fermentations; pyruvate
80
Decomposition
Nutrients are released to the environment from dead organisms
81
Fixation
oxidized nutrients are made available for use by heterotrophs
82
What do photosynthesizers fix
They fix carbon into sugars
83
_____ _____ added oxygen to the air
ancient cyanobacteria
84
What do Nitrogen fixers reduce
They reduce nitrogen to ammonia (NH3)
85
There's a ___ ____ association between ____ and ____
mutually beneficial plants bacteria
86
Not all plant prokaryote interactions are mutually beneficial. Some can establish a ______ ______ causing harm to important crops
Parasitic relationship
87
There are _____ relationships between mammals and _______
beneficial prokaryotes
88
Bioremediation
The use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air, and soil
89
Biostimulation
The addition of nutrients to a biome to encourage growth of naturally occurring microbes that can degrade oil spills
90
Halorespiration
When bacteria remove halogenated compounds from toxic wastes
91
How does bacteria cause disease in humans
* Bacteria gain entry into the body * They colonize at the site of infection * Then invade the immune system * They spread to other sites in the body * Causing damage by triggering our inflammatory responses to foreign bacteria or they produce toxins
92
What bacteria is in Tuberculosis (TB)
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
93
What does the Mycobacterium Tuberculosis affect
Affects the respiratory system and it's easily transferred from person to person through the air
94
What bacteria are in ulcers
Helicobacter Pylori can cause stomach ulcers
95
How do you treat stomach ulcers
You reduce the amount of stomach acid
96
Helicobacter Pylori can also cause _____, stomach ____, and _____
gastritis cancer Lymphoma
97
Gonorrhea is caused by
Neisseria Gonorrhoeae
98
How is Gonorrhea transmitted
Transmitted through exchange of body fluids
99
What bacteria causes Chlamydia and what can it cause
Chlamydia Trachomatis * Can cause pelvic inflammatory disease and heart disease
100
What is the silent STD
Chlamydia
101
What bacteria causes Syphilis
Treponema Pallidum
102
How is syphilis transmitted
Transmitted through sex or contact with open chancre
103
What are the stages of syphilis and how infectious are they
1) Chancre - highly infectious 2) Rash - Infectious 3) Latency - not infectious but attacks internal organs 4) No damage - nerve damage, heart disease, mental deficiency
104
How do Eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic cells
* They have a complex cytoskeleton * Compartmentalization (Nucleus and organelles)
105
Which STD's can be passed onto a mothers baby
* Syphilis * Gonorrhea
106
When did eukaryotes appear in microfossils
about 1.5 billion years ago
107
How did the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum emerge
They arose from infoldings of a prokaryotic cell membrane
108
How did mitochondria form
Aerobic bacteria was engulfed by larger bacteria making the mitochondria
109
How did chloroplasts form
when a larger bacteria engulfed a smaller photosynthetic bacteria forming a chloroplast
110
_____ came from a single line of cyanobacteria
Chloroplasts
111
Secondary Endosymbiosis
When brown algae obtained their chloroplasts by engulfing one or more red algae that already had chloroplasts
112
Endosymbiosis is supported by what evidence
* DNA inside mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to DNA in bacteria * Ribosomes inside mitochondria are similar to bacterial ribosomes * Chloroplasts and mitochondria replicate by binary fission like prokaryotes
113
______ carries its genes on a single circular DNA molecule
Prokaryotes
114
_____ carries its genes on multiple chromosomes, which are usually present in pairs
Eukaryotes
115
_____ and _____ developed to separate chromosomes and other cell contents during cell division
Mitosis Cytokinesis
116
_____ are the most diverse of the four eukaryotic kingdoms
Protists
117
Protists vary considerably in
* Unicellular, Colonial, and multicellular groups * size * Nutrition
118
_____ are paraphyletic
Protists
119
What are the six eukaryotic supergroups
* Excavata * Chromalveolata * Archaeplastida * Rhizaria * Amoebozoa * Ophisthokonta
120
Protists are present in ____ _____ eukaryotic supergroups
all six
121
What type of cell surfaces do protists possess
* Some have plasma membranes * Most have an extracellular matrix * Some have strong cell walls (diatoms and silica shells)
122
Protist Cyst
A dormant cell with resistant outer covering that's used to survive and reproduce asexually in harsh conditions
123
What are ways a protist moves
* Flagella * Cilia * Pseudopods
124
_____ (False Feet) are the chief means of locomotion among amoebas
Pseudopods
125
How do Protists get their energy
* They are autotrophs * Some photosynthetic * Some Chemoautotrophic * They are Heterotrophs * Phagotrophs * Mixotrophs
126
Phagotroph
organisms that ingest particles of food in vesicles called food vacuoles
127
Mixotrophs
Protists that are both phototrophic and heterotrophic
128
Protists typically reproduce _____
asexually
129
Mitosis creates two _____ _____ daughter cells
equal size
130
______ creates one daughter cell that's _____
Budding smaller
131
Schizogony
cell division preceded by several nuclear divisions (produces several daughter cells)
132
The advantage of sexual reproduction is that it allows for frequent _____ _____
genetic recombination
133
The great advantage of _______ is that it fosters specialization
multicellularity
134
Specialization
When cells devote all of their energy to one function in a tissue and other cells to other functions Like a trade specialty
135
What are the organisms classified under the supergroup Excavata
* Diplomonads * Parabasalids * Euglenozoans
136
What do the excavata supergroup organisms have in common
They share similarities in cytoskeletal features and DNA sequences
137
Diplomonads are characterized as
* Unicellular * Don't have a functional mitochondria * Two nuclei
138
What's an example of a diplomonad
Giardia Intestinalis
139
Giardia Intestinalis
a parasitic diplomonad that can pass from human to human via contamined water
140
Distinguishing features of Parabasalids
* Have a undulating membrane for locomotion * Have flagella * Have a semifunctional mitochondria
141
______ have a symbiotic relationship with cellulose-degrading bacteria
Parabasalids
142
Some _____ live in the guts of termites
parabasalids
143
Trichomonas vaginalis causes trichomoniasis, a common STD in humans originating from _______
Parabasalids
144
What are the differences between diplomonads and parabasalids
* Parabasalids have a semifunctional mitchondria and have one nucleus per cell * Diplomonads don't have a functional mitochondria and have two nuclei per cell
145
What are Euglenozoans distinguishing features
* Their bodies change shape, alternating between being stretched out and being rounded
146
Why can euglenozoans change shape
They lack a cell wall and instead have strips of protein encircling the cell * The strips can slide providing flexibility
147
_____ are among the earliest eukaryotes to possess mitochondria
Euglenozoa
148
What are considered euglenozoans
* Free-living euglenids * Parasitic kinetoplastids
149
______ of euglenids have ______ and are ______; the others ______ chloroplasts, ingest their food, and are ______
1/3 chloroplasts autotrophic lack heterotrophic
150
Euglena have two unequal ______ attached at the reservoir
flagella
151
How does reproduction occur in euglenids
Reproduction occurs asexually and by mitosis
152
______ ______ collect excess water from all parts of the organism and empty it into the reservoir in _______
Contractile vacuoles Euglena
153
A light-sensitive _____ helps photosynthetic ______ move toward light
Stigma Euglenids
154
Cells of ______ contain numerous small _____
Euglena Chloroplasts
155
How did euglenid chloroplasts evolve
They evolved from a symbiotic relationship through ingestion of green algae
156
What's the second major group in euglenozoa
Kinetoplastids
157
What are distinguishing characteristics of Kinetoplastids
* Have a unique, single mitochondrion in each cell
158
What's an example of a kinetoplastid
Trypanosome
159
Trypanosome
a group of kinetoplastids that cause many serious human diseases
160
What are examples of diseases that Trypanosomes can cause
* Trypanosomiasis * Chagas
161
Trypanosomiasis
* African sleeping sickness * Causes extreme lethargy and fatigue
162
How is Chagas Disease contracted
caused by skin contact with urine or blood of infected wild animals
163
What supergroups are in the Chromalveolate group
* Stramenopila * Alveolata
164
Name the organisms in the alveolate group
* Dinoflagellates * Apicomplexans * Ciliates
165
What do the organisms under the alveolates clade have in common
They have flattened vesicles called alveoli
166
What's the difference among the alveolates
They have a diverse modes of locomotion
167
What are the distinguishing features of Dinoflagellates
* Photosynthetic * Two flagella * Some are luminescent
168
The _______ chromosome is unique among the eukaryotes because their DNA is not generally complexed with histone proteins
Dinoflagellate
169
Most dinoflagellates contain chlorophylls ___ and ___ in addition to ______
a c carotenoids
170
How do dinoflagellates reproduce
They produce asexually
171
What happens when toxic dinoflagellates are abundant in the ocean
many fishes, birds, and marine mammals may die
172
Apicomplexans
Spore forming parasites of animals
173
Apical Complex
A unique arrangement of organelles at one end of a apicomplexan that allows the apicomplexan to invade its host
174
Give an example of an apicomplexan
Plasmodium (Responsible for malaria)
175
How does Toxoplasma gondii invades epithelial cells of human guts
They use apical complex
176
What does Toxoplasma cause in humans
Causes infections in humans who are immunocompromised * Can harm fetus
177
What are Ciliates distinguishing features
* Alot of Cilia in longitudinal rows or spirals around cell * Cilia beat in coordination * Micronucleus * Macronucleus * Food Vacuoles * Contractile Vacuoles
178
Micronucleus
used as a germ line for sexual reproduction ( NO DNA Transcribed)
179
Macronucleus
DNA is transcribed for daily activities of organisms
180
Food Vacuoles
Digestion of food
181
Contractile Vacuoles
Regulate water balance
182
What is Stramenopila composed of
* Brown algae * Diatoms * Ooymycetes (Water molds)
183
Brown Algae are _____
Haplodiplontic
184
Haplodiplontic
Life style where both gametophyte (haploid) and sporophyte (diploid) stages alternate
185
Unique features of Diatoms
* Photosynthetic Unicellular * Unique double shells made of silica * Raphes
186
Raphe
two long grooves lined with vibrating fibrils that help diatoms move
187
Oomycetes are also known as
Water molds
188
Oomycetes are either ____ or _____
parasites saprobes (decomposers)
189
How are oomycetes distinguished from other protists
Their structure of their motile spores (Zoospores) and two unequal flagella
190
How do oomycetes reproduce
They produce asexually
191
What monophyletic groups are in the organism group of Rhizaria
* Radiolaria * Foraminifera * Cercozoa
192
What do the Rhizaria group have in common
They have pseudopods for locomotion
193
What are the distinguishing features of Radiolarians
* Glassy exoskeletons made of silica * Needlelike pseudopods
194
Foraminifera are _____ marine protists
heterotrophic
195
What are the distinguishing characteristics of foraminifera
* Pore-studded shells (Tests) * Podia
196
Podia
* Used for swimming * Gathering materials for the tests * Feeding
197
What's the lifecycle of foraminifera
* Haplodiplontic Life style * They alternate between haploid and diploid generations
198
Where can forams be found
* limestone * White Cliffs of Dover
199
_____ are a diverse group of primarily soil protists
Cercozoa
200
What are features of cercozoa
* Some rely on flagella * Some have pseudopods * Some have silica-based shells
201
What groups are in Archaeplastida
* Rhodophyta * Chlorophyta * Charophytes * Land plants
202
______ acquired their chloroplasts through _____ _______
Archaeplastida primary endosymbiosis
203
Archaeplastida are _____ organisms
Photosynthetic
204
What are features of Rhodophyta
* Red Algae * Size ranges from microscopic to very large * Lack flagella and centrioles * Have photosynthetic pigments (red)
205
What are the life cycle of rhodophyta like
They have haploid and diploid phases
206
Green algae consists of what lineages
Chlorophyta and charophytes
207
Chlorophyta have
unusual diversity and lines of specialization
208
Charophytes gave rise the the ____ _____
land plants
209
Early _____ ______ probably resembled Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, diverging from land plants over ______ BYA
green algae one
210
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is widely used for recombinant _______ ______
protein expression
211
Colonial ______ are examples of cellular specialization
Chlorophytes
212
Volvox
Hollow sphere made up of a single layer of thousands of individual cells each with two flagella
213
Haplodiplontic life cycles are found in some _____ and ______
Chlorophytes Strptophytes
214
Ulva
* Multicellular chlorophyte * Identical gametophyte and sporophyte generations * Flattened sheets
215
______ are also green algae; distinguished from _____ by phylogenetic relationship to ____ ____
Charophytes chlorophytes land plants
216
What is the lifestyle of Charophytes
Haplontic life style
217
What two charophyte clades are thought to be most closely related to land plants
* chareles * Coleochaetales
218
Characteristics of Amoebas
* Pseudopods
219
Pseudopod
flowing projections of cytoplasm that extend and pull the amoeba forward or to engulf food particles
220
What is associated with amoeba movement
Microfilaments are associated with the movement of amoeba
221
Some _____ are parasitic
amoeba
222
Where are amoebas found
Found in soil and freshwater
223
What does the acanthomoeba do to immunocompromised individuals
It enters the body of a human through a wound and causes inflammation and even death in the brain
224
What are slime molds important for
Important for the study of cell differentiation because of their simple developmental systems
225
_____ ______ ingest bacteria
Slime molds
226
What organism aggregates to form a slug when food is scare
Slime molds
227
The slime mold that turns into a slug can make ____ ____
spore cells
228
What organisms are under the opisthokonta clade
* Fungi * Opisthokonts * Animals
229
Characteristics of Opisthokonts
* Unicellular * Share common ancestor with sponges and animals * Single flagellum surrounded by contractile collar
230
What do colonial opisthokonts resemble
Freshwater sponges (animals)
231
____ _____ and the ____ _____ shared a common ancestor a little over _____ BYA
Green algae land plants one
232
Not all photoautotrophs are ______
plants
233
What issues did plants have to overcome on land
* Water loss * Protection from the sun
234
What helped plants colonize land and how did they help
Fungi helped to make nutrients available to plants
235
What two major clades did the green algae split into
* Chlorophytes * Charophytes
236
What green algae clade did not make it to land
Chlorophytes
237
What green algae clade did make it to land
Charophytes
238
land plants have multicellular ____ and _____ stages
Haploid diploid
239
How did land plants adapt to terrestrial life
Formed a waxy cuticle and stomata
240
How did land plants efficiently transport water
With tracheophytes
241
Tracheophytes
Have specialized vascular tissue for transport over long distances
242
Xylem
The tissue that carries water in land plants
243
Phloem
Dissolved nutrients and sugars are carried here
244
All land plants have what generations
haploid and diploid generation
245
What did UV light do to terrestrial plants
It increased the chance of plant mutations so land plants had to become diploid (carrying two copies of every gene)
246
What is the haplodiplontic life cycle
1) Sporophyte (Diploid stage) 2) Gametophyte ( Haploid stage)
247
Explain the sporophyte stage
1) Sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis * undergoes meiosis in sporangia 2) Produces 4 haploid spores * first cells of gametophyte generation
248
Explain the gametophyte stage
1) The spores divide by mitosis 2) Produces gametes by mitosis 3) Gametes fuse to form diploid zygote 4) Diploid zygote is the first cell of the next sporophyte generation
249
All land plants are ______
Haplodiplontic
250
Moss have large _____ and small, dependent _____
Gametophyte sporophyte
251
Angiosperm have small, dependent ______ and large ______
gametophyte sporophyte
252
______ are the closest living descendants of the first land plants
Bryophytes
253
Plants in the Byrophytes group are also called _____
nontracheophytes
254
Why are bryophytes also called nontracheophytes
because they lack the transport cells called tracheids
255
What is mycorrhizal associations important for in bryophytes
It's important because it enhances water uptake
256
The beneficial symbiotic relationships between fungi and plants is called _____
mycorrhizal associations
257
What are the characteristics of bryophytes
* Simple * Photosynthetic gametophyte Require water for sexual reproduction
258
What clades are in the bryophyte group
* Liverworts * Mosses * Hornworts
259
______ have flattened gametophytes with liverlike lobes
Liverworts
260
What type of reproduction does Liverworts have
asexual reproduction
261
______ form gametangia in umbrella-shaped structures
Liverwort
262
Gaemtophytes in _____ consist of small, leaflike structures around a stem-like axis
Moss
263
_____ does not have true leaves, no vascular tissue
Moss
264
The gametophytes in moss are anchored to substrate by _______
Rhizoids
265
Rhizoid
consists of several cells that absorb water, but not at the volume by vascular plant roots
266
How does moss reproduce
* Mitosis * Have multicellular gametangia (gamete-producing structures) * Gametangia are formed at the tips of moss gametophytes
267
Female gametangia
Archegonia
268
Male gametangia
Antheridia
269
_______ are most likely among the earliest land plants, yet the earliest ______ fossil spores date from the _______ period
Hornworts Hortwort Cretaceous
270
In ______ the sporophyte base is embedded in gametophyte tissue
Hortworts
271
Hornworts are _______ and their cells have a single large _______
Photosynthetic Chloroplast
272
_______ was the first vascular land plant
Cooksonia
273
Cooksonia appeared about ______ MYA
420
274
What are some features of cooksonias
* Only a few centimeters tall * No roots or leaves * Homosporous
275
Homosporous
Produce only one type of spore
276
What are the two types of vascular tissues
* Xylem * Phloem
277
Xylem
Conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots
278
Phloem
Conducts sucrose and hormones throughout the plant
279
What do vascular tissues enhance
* Allows tracheophytes to achieve a bigger size
280
Where does vascular tissue develop
* In the sporophyte
281
What are some features found in all vascular plant sporophytes and what do they help with
* Cuticle * Stomata * Help reduce water loss
282
Tracheophytes are grouped into what three clades
* Lycophytes (club moss) * Pterophytes (ferns, whisk ferns, and horntails) * Seed plants
283
The ______ has been reduced in size relative to the ______ during the evolution of the tracheophytes
Gametophyte Sporophyte
284
Early Tracheophytes have stems but no _____ or ______
roots leaves
285
The lack of _____ limited early tracheophytes
roots
286
Roots provide _____ and _____
Transport Support
287
_______ diverged from ______ before roots appeared
Lycophytes Tracheophyes
288
______ increase surface area for photosynthesis
Leaves
289
_____ and _____ were believed to have evolved twice
roots leaves
290
What are the two ways leaves evolved
* Lycophylls * Euphylls
291
Lycophylls
single vascular strands supporting small leaves
292
Euphylls
branched vascular strands
293
What leaves are found only in ferns and seed plants
Euphylls
294
The earliest vascular plants lacked _____
Seeds
295
Lycophytes (Club mosses) resemble
true mosses
296
Lycophytes (Club mosses) have a dominant ______ stage
sporophyte
297
Pterophytes have what two clades
* Wisk ferns * Horsetails
298
What do pterophytes require
They require free water for their flagellated sperm
299
Pterophytes all form ______ and ________
Antheridia Archegonia
300
Antheridia
contain sperm
301
Archegonia
contain eggs
302
Where are whisk ferns located
* Tropics * Subtropics
303
What does the sporophyte generation of whisk ferns consist of
They consists of evenly forking green stems without roots
304
Whisk ferns are the only gametophytes known to do what
develop elements of vascular tissue
305
Horsetails have _____ living species that are homosporous
15
306
What do horsetail sporophytes consist of
ribbed jointed photosynthetic stems that arise from underground rhizomes
307
What do the horsetail stems contain
silica deposits
308
______ are also called scouring rushes
Horsetails
309
______ are the most abundant group of seedless vascular plants
Ferns
310
Ferns have small _____ and even smaller ______ that are both ______
sporophytes gametophytes photosynthetic
311
The gametophyte stage of a fern life cycle lacks _____ ______
vascular tissue
312
The fern ______ has greater development, independence, and dominance than the fern's ______
sporophyte gametophyte
313
Fern sporophytes have _____
Rhizomes (horizontal underground stems)
314
_____ usually develop at the tip of the rhizome as tightly rolled-up coils called _____
Fronds fiddleheads
315
Frond
leaves
316
Fern produced distinctive ______ in clusters called ____ on the back of the fronds
Sporangia sori
317
The fern spores germinate producing photosynthetic _______ that have ______
gametophytes rhizoids
318
The fern rhizoids are not _____ roots because they lack _____ ______
true vascular tissue
319
The sperm in the antheridia of ferns have ______
flagella
320
When did seed plants begin to diversify from their seedless ancestor
319 MYA
321
Seed plants evolved from
Progymnosperms (spore-bearing plants)
322
What are successful attributes of seeds
* Protects/Provides food for embryo inside seed * Can survive harsh periods before germinating * Enhanced dispersal of plant
323
The embryo in the seed is protected by the ______
Integument
324
Integument
An extra layer or two of sporophyte tissue protecting the embryo inside the seed
325
Where does meiotic cell division occur in the seed
Megasporangium
326
What does the megasporangium produce
Produces a haploid megaspore
327
The ______ divided by mitosis in a seed
Megaspore
328
What does the megaspore produce
Produces a female gametophyte that carries an egg
329
What does the egg in a seed combine to produce a zygote
Combines with a male gamete (sperm)
330
The single cell zygote in a seed divides by _____ to produce a young sporophyte or an _______
Mitosis embryo
331
What does the seed contain for the embryo
food
332
Seed plants produce what two kinds of gametophytes
* Male gametophyte * Female gametophyte
333
A pollen grain is a ______ gametophyte carrying the ______ gamete
male male
334
How are pollen grains brought to the female gametophyte
* wind * pollinator
335
Do male gametophytes need water
No water is necessary
336
Where does a female gametophyte form
within the seed
337
What does a female gametophyte produce in the seed
an ovule
338
The ovules are completely enclosed within additional diploid _______ tissue in ______
sporophyte angiosperm
339
What is the ovule and surrounding protective tissues called
an ovary
340
What does an ovary develop into
develops into a fruit
341
What are the five phyla of extant seed plants
* Coniferophyta * Cycadophyta * Gnetophyta * Ginkophyta * Anthophyta
342
What are the four groups of gymnosperms
* Coniferophytes * Cycadophytes * Gnetophytes * Ginkgophytes
343
_______ means "naked seed" because the seed develops on the ______ of the scale
Gymnosperm surface
344
______ lacks flowers and fruits
Gymnosperms
345
______ produce flowers and fruits
Angiosperms
346
What's the most familiar gymnosperm phylum
Conifers
347
What are examples of conifers
* Pines * Spruce * Firs * Cedars
348
Tallest living conifer vascular plant
Coastal Redwood
349
Oldest living conifer tree
Bristlecone pine
350
Where are conifers found
* Colder temperatures * Sometimes drier regions
351
What important products are conifers a source of
* Timber * Paper * Resin * Taxol (treats certain cancers)
352
More than _____ species of exist today, all native to the northern hemisphere
100 pines
353
What are some distinguishing features of pines
* Tough needle-like leaves * Thick cuticle * Recessed stomata * Canals on leaves
354
What are the cuticle and recessed stomata on pine trees used for
used to reduce water loss
355
What are the canals on the leaves of pine trees used for
To canals secrete resin that deter insects and fungal attacks
356
What reproductive structures do pines have
* pollen grains * Pine cones
357
Pollen grains are the ______ gametophyte
male
358
Pollen grains of pines develop from _______
Microspores
359
Microspores are produced by
meiosis in male cones
360
Where do female pine cones form
On the upper branches of the pine tree
361
______ cones are larger, and have woody scales
female
362
Where do the ovules develop on pines
on each scale of the female pine cone
363
What do each ovule on a pine tree contain
megasporangium
364
_______ is known as the nucellus on a pine tree
megasporangium
365
The Nucellus is completely surrounded by the ________ that has a small opening towards one end called the _______
integument micropyle
366
Micropyle
a small opening at tone end of the integument
367
what later becomes the seed coat on a pine tree
The integument
368
What does a single megaspore mother cell within each megasporangium become after meiosis
It becomes a row of four megaspores
369
How many megaspores break down in a pine tree
three out of the four
370
One _______ slowly develops into a female gametophyte through mitosis
megaspore
371
At maturity the female gametophyte may consist of thousands of cells, with _____ to ______ archegonia formed at the ________ end
two six micropylar
372
Each ________ contains a large egg
Archegonium
373
How long do female cones take to mature
Two or more seasons
374
What happens during the first season to female cones
* Scales open * Pollen grain is drawn out through the micropyle to the top of nucellus * Scales close
375
When do the female gametophyte mature in a female cone
about a year after the first season
376
What happens while the female gametophyte is maturing
A pollen tube emerges from a pollen grain at the bottom of the micropyle and slowly digests its way through the nucellus to the archegonia
377
How much sperm does a mature male gametophyte have
two
378
What happens 15 months after pollination in a female pine cone
The pollen tube enters the ovule through micropyle and discharges its contents
379
What forms a zygote after the pollen tube discharges the contents
When one sperm unites with the egg it forms a zygote
380
What happens to the second sperm and cells of the pollen after creating a zygote
The sperm and cells of the pollen grain degenerate
381
_______ are slow growing gymnosperms
Cycads
382
What environment do cycads live in
* Tropical * Subtropical regions
383
The female cones on cycads can weigh up to ______ kg
45
384
The sporophytes of cycads resemble _______
palm trees
385
_______ have the only gymnosperms with vessels in their xylem
Gnetophytes
386
Gnetophytes contain what three genera
* Welwitschia * Ephedra * Gnetum
387
_______ have only one remaining living species
Ginkgophytes
388
What remaining species does ginkgophytes have
Ginkgo biloba
389
What features do gingkophytes have
* Flagella * Dioecious
390
Dioecious
Male and Female reproductive structures form on different trees
391
_____ are a group of seed plants that are flowering plants
Angiosperms
392
______ have ovules that are enclosed within diploid tissue at the time of pollination
Angiosperms
393
What's a unique angiosperm feature
They have a carpel
394
Carpel
Modified leaf that covers seeds and develops into fruit
395
The emergence of ____ changed the terrain of earth
Angiosperms
396
What dominated earth before angiosperms
* Ferns * Cycads * Conifers
397
How did angiosperms expand so rapidly
* Unique features * Flower production * Attract insect pollinators * Broad leaves with dense veins
398
What was the oldest known angiosperm
Archaefructus Sinensis
399
How old was the complete angiosperm fossil
125 MYA
400
What did the fossil angiosperm lack
Sepals and petals to attract pollinators
401
What's the closest living relative to the original angiosperm
Amborella
402
____ ____ _____ explains the presence of moss mitochondrial genes in the genome of amborella
Horizontal gene transfer
403
_____ are considered to be modified stems bearing modified leaves
Flowers
404
Flowers originated as a ______
Primordium
405
What does the primordium develop into
Develops into a pedicel
406
Pedicel
A bud at the end of a stalk
407
The pedicel expands slightly at the tip to form the _____
receptacle
408
What are the remaining flower parts attached to
Receptacle
409
How are the other flower parts attached
Attached in circles (Whorls)
410
Sepals
Outermost whorl
411
Petals
Second whorl
412
Stamens (androecium)
Third whorl
413
Where are the male gametophytes and pollen produced
Stamens
414
_____ consists of a pollen bearing ____ and a stalk called a ____
Stamen Anther Filament
415
Gynoecium
fourth whorl
416
Where are the female gametophytes housed
Gynoecium
417
_____ consists of one or more carpels
Gynoecium
418
What are the three major regions of the carpel
* Ovary * Stigma * Style
419
Ovary
swollen base containing ovules that can develop into a fruit
420
Stigma
tip where pollen lands
421
Style
neck or stalk of flower
422
Double Fertilization
When a single diploid megaspore mother cell in the ovule undergoes meiosis * Produces 4 haploid megaspores
423
What happens to the 4 haploid megaspores in double fertilization
* Three of the megaspores disappear * Nucleus of remaining megaspore divides through mitosis
424
Explain the formation of the female gametophyte (embryo sac) in flowers
1) Formation of haploid nuclei 2) Movement of nuclei 3) Formation of the egg cell 4) Synergids 5) Antipodal cells 6) Integuments become the seed coat 7) Female Gametophyte
425
Explain step one in the formation of female gametophyte
Inside the ovule, one cell undergoes several divisions to produce 8 haploid nuclei These are organized into two groups of 4 nuclei
426
Explain step two in the formation of female gametophyte
Two of these nuclei (one from each group) move to the center of the embryo sac becoming the polar nuclei, which may eventually fuse
427
Explain step three in the formation of female gametophyte
cell closest to the micropyle becomes the egg, which will eventually be fertilized by sperm.
428
Explain step four in the formation of female gametophyte
On either side of the egg, two cells called synergids form. These may help guide the pollen tube toward the egg
429
Explain step five in the formation of female gametophyte
At the opposite end of the embryo sac , three cells called antipodal cells form. These have no known function in most plants
430
Explain step six in the formation of female gametophyte
The surrounding layers of tissue, called integuments, will eventually develop into the seed coat
431
Explain step seven in the formation of female gametophyte
The structure now consists of 7 cells and is called the female gametophyte or embryo sac. This structure is ready for fertilization
432
Where does pollen production occur
Anthers
433
The patches of tissue in the anther is composed of many diploid ______ mother cells that undergo ______, each producing _____ microspores
microspore meiosis four
434
The binucleate microspores become _____ _____
pollen grains
435
Pollination
mechanical transfer of pollen from its source to a receptive area
436
Pollen grains can develop a ____ ____ that is guided to the embryo sac
pollen tube
437
What happens to the pollen grain cell that lags behind
it divides to produce two sperm cells
438
What happens in double fertilization in angiosperms
* One sperm unites with the egg forming a zygote * The other sperm and the two polar nuclei unite
439
What happens to the zygote in double fertilization
It develops into a embryo sporophyte plant
440
What happens to the other sperm in double fertilization
Once the sperm and two polar nuclei unite they form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus
441
What does the triploid primary endosperm nucleus do
Provides nutrients to the embryo
442
In _____ development of the embryo is arrested soon after meristems and cotyledons differentiate
angiosperms
443
Meristems and cotyledons
seed leaves
444
Seed coat
The integuments and outer cell layers of the ovule become the seed coat
445
What does the seed contain
* Dormant embryo * Stored food
446
How do seeds protect embryos
* Maintain dormancy under harsh conditions * Protect the young plant * Provide food for embryo * Facilitate dispersal of embryo
447
Most of the embryo's metabolic activities cease when
a seed coat forms
448
Germination takes place when
water and oxygen reach the embryo
449
Can seeds remain viable for thousands of years
yes, some seeds of some plants can remain viable
450
How do some seeds germinate when they lie within tough cones
They open when exposed to fire
451
Fruits can be defined as
mature ovaries (carpels)
452
Is it possible for fruits to develop without seeds
yes
453

BIOL 1407 (2 decks)

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