Exam #2 Flashcards
10/9 (40 cards)
What are the current statistics on the representation of women in the US Senate and House of Representatives? How have these figures changed over time?
Women hold 27 of the 100 seats in the U.S. Senate, which is about 27%. In the House of Representatives, women occupy 124 of the 435 seats, or approximately 28.5%.
A slow but steady upward trend in women’s representation, although they still fall short of equal representation
Senate:
* 1993: 2 women (less than 2%)
* 2000: 9 women (9%)
* 2010: 17 women (17%)
* 2020: 26 women (26%)
* 2023: 27 women (27%)
House of Representatives:
* 1993: 28 women (6.5%)
* 2000: 59 women (13.7%)
* 2010: 87 women (20%)
* 2020: 102 women (23.4%)
* 2023: 124 women (28.5%)
How does the representation of women in the US compare to other countries?
The U.S. has made progress in increasing women’s representation, it still lags behind many countries that have implemented systemic measures like gender quotas to promote gender parity.
What are the differences between majority and plurality electoral systems, and how do they affect women candidates?
Majority Electoral Systems
Definition: A candidate must receive more than 50% of the votes to win.
Plurality Electoral Systems
Definition: The candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority.
Characteristics: Common in single-member districts, this system allows candidates to win with less than 50% of the votes if the opposition is divided among many candidates.
How does proportional representation influence women’s chances in multi-member districts?
- More Seats: More candidates can be elected, increasing opportunities for women.
- Diverse Candidate Lists: Parties often include more women to attract voters.
- Encouragement to Run: The potential for multiple winners encourages parties to support women candidates.
- Voter Support: Voters may feel more empowered to support women since multiple representatives can be elected.
- Support Networks: Women can build stronger networks in multi-member settings.
In what ways do single-member and multi-member districts impact female candidates’ success?
Single-Member Districts:
* Winner-Takes-All System: Only one candidate wins, which often favors established, male candidates, limiting opportunities for women.
* Increased Competition: The high stakes can discourage women from running, as they face intense competition with fewer chances to succeed.
* Visibility and Recognition: With only one seat, women may struggle to stand out against well-known male candidates, impacting name recognition and voter support.
* Resource Limitations: Women may have less access to funding and campaign resources, which can hinder their ability to compete effectively.
Multi-Member Districts:
* More Opportunities for Election: Multiple candidates can be elected, increasing the chances for women to win seats.
* Diverse Candidate Lists: Parties are more likely to include women to appeal to a broader electorate, resulting in higher female representation.
* Support Networks: Women can form coalitions and support each other more easily, enhancing campaign resources and strategies.
* Lower Barriers to Entry: The presence of multiple seats can reduce the pressure on individual candidates, making it easier for women to enter politics.
What are the potential benefits of ranked choice voting for women candidates?
Ranked choice voting (RCV) can offer several potential benefits for women candidates:
- Reduced Vote Splitting: RCV allows voters to rank multiple candidates. This can help prevent situations where votes are split among similar candidates, often disadvantaging women who may run against male candidates with established support.
- Increased Support for Diverse Candidates: RCV encourages voters to support candidates they truly align with rather than voting strategically for a perceived “front-runner.” This can lead to more women candidates receiving votes based on their platforms rather than their gender.
- Encourages More Candidates to Run: Knowing that voters can rank candidates may encourage more women to enter the race, as they feel less pressure to be the sole viable option.
- Focus on Issues Rather Than Attack Ads: With RCV, candidates may be less likely to engage in negative campaigning, focusing instead on their policies to appeal to a broader audience. This can create a more positive campaigning environment that benefits women candidates.
- Voter Engagement: RCV can lead to increased voter engagement and turnout, as it empowers voters to express their preferences more fully, which can include support for women candidates who might otherwise be overlooked.
- Representation and Diversity: RCV can lead to more diverse elected bodies, including increased representation of women, as it allows for a wider array of candidates to succeed based on their merits rather than traditional campaigning methods.
What are the differences between voluntary and mandatory gender quotas?
Voluntary quotas rely on self-imposed guidelines, while mandatory quotas are legally enforced, leading to different levels of commitment and effectiveness in achieving gender parity
How do gender quotas impact women’s representation and electoral success?
Gender quotas significantly increase women’s representation and electoral success by ensuring a minimum number of female candidates, enhancing visibility, and fostering party support, ultimately promoting a more inclusive political landscape.
What factors contribute to the success of female candidates when running as incumbents, challengers, or in open seats?
Incumbents:
* Established Networks: Incumbents often have stronger political and fundraising networks, which can aid in their re-election.
* Name Recognition: Being in office boosts visibility and recognition among voters, making it easier to secure votes.
* Record of Accomplishments: Incumbent women can point to their achievements in office, demonstrating effectiveness and building trust with constituents.
Challengers:
* Support from Political Organizations: Access to endorsements, training, and resources from women’s organizations can enhance their viability.
* Campaign Experience: Previous political or campaign experience helps challengers navigate the electoral process more effectively.
* Issue Alignment: Focusing on issues that resonate with the electorate, particularly those related to women’s rights, can attract support.
Open Seats:
* Opportunity for New Candidates: Open seats present a level playing field, allowing female candidates to compete without incumbents’ advantages.
* Diverse Candidate Pools: Increased interest from multiple candidates can create a more competitive environment that benefits women.
* Strategic Alliances: Forming coalitions or gaining endorsements can help female candidates gain traction in open races.
How do perceptions of electability influence women’s decisions to run for office?
- Confidence and Self-Perception: Women may hesitate to run if they perceive themselves as less electable due to societal stereotypes or the underrepresentation of women in office.
- Party Support: If party leaders and members view female candidates as less likely to win, this can lead to less support for their candidacies, discouraging them from running.
- Media Representation: Negative or biased media portrayals can shape public perceptions of women’s electability, impacting women’s willingness to enter the race.
- Risk Aversion: Women often face greater scrutiny, leading to concerns about potential backlash or failure, which may deter them from pursuing candidacies.
- Historical Context: A lack of historical success for women candidates in certain areas can create a perception that women are less electable, influencing new candidates’ decisions.
- Overall, if women believe they are perceived as electable, they are more likely to pursue political office; conversely, negative perceptions can discourage their participation.
What societal biases and stereotypes affect these perceptions
- Gender Stereotypes: Traditional views often associate leadership and authority with masculinity. Women may be perceived as less competent or less capable of handling leadership roles, leading to doubts about their qualifications.
- Double Standards: Women candidates may face harsher scrutiny for their behavior, appearance, or communication style compared to their male counterparts. This double standard can create an uneven playing field, affecting how they are perceived by voters.
- Caring vs. Competence Dichotomy: Women are often stereotyped as caregivers, which can lead to perceptions that they are more suited for social or community-oriented roles rather than political leadership. This can undermine their candidacies in more competitive, high-stakes positions.
- Age and Appearance Bias: Women candidates can face ageism and appearance-based judgments that may not impact male candidates to the same degree. Younger women may be seen as inexperienced, while older women might be viewed as less relatable.
- Perceived Electability: Voters may internalize biases about who is considered “electable.” Women candidates may be unfairly deemed less viable, discouraging voter support even if they have strong qualifications.
- Media Representation: Media portrayals can reinforce stereotypes, often focusing on personal aspects of women candidates’ lives rather than their policies or qualifications. This can shape public perceptions and reduce the focus on their competence.
- Socialization and Norms: Cultural norms often dictate how men and women should behave, which can impact how women candidates present themselves. Women may feel pressured to conform to traditional roles, which can hinder their political assertiveness.
Why is being asked to run significant in a woman’s decision to enter politics?
- Validation and Encouragement: An invitation to run can serve as validation of a woman’s capabilities and potential, boosting her confidence to enter a challenging arena.
- Support Networks: Being approached often indicates the presence of support from peers, political organizations, or community members, which can provide crucial resources and encouragement.
- Perceived Electability: When someone expresses belief in a woman’s candidacy, it can enhance her perception of electability, making her more likely to consider running.
- Overcoming Barriers: Many women may not consider running for office due to self-doubt or societal barriers; being asked can help overcome these obstacles and inspire action.
- Visibility and Opportunity: The request highlights a recognition of her potential leadership, opening doors to political opportunities she may not have pursued otherwise.
What role do networks and support systems play in this process?
- Encouragement and Confidence: Supportive networks provide encouragement and validation, helping women feel more confident in their abilities to run for office.
- Resource Access: Established networks can offer vital resources such as funding, mentorship, training, and information on navigating the political landscape.
- Campaign Support: Networks can mobilize volunteers, connect candidates with campaign experts, and help with logistics, making it easier for women to mount successful campaigns.
- Building Relationships: Strong support systems facilitate the development of relationships with key stakeholders, including party leaders, potential donors, and community influencers.
- Sharing Experiences: Networks enable women to share experiences and strategies with others who have run for office, helping to mitigate feelings of isolation and uncertainty.
- Advocacy and Visibility: Support systems can amplify women’s voices and visibility, promoting their candidacies within the community and the broader political arena.
How does involvement in college or university student government affect a woman’s decision to run for office in the future?
- Political Experience: Engaging in student government provides practical experience in governance, policy-making, and advocacy, making the idea of running for office more familiar and attainable.
- Increased Interest: Exposure to political processes and issues during their time in student government can heighten interest in public service and civic engagement, motivating them to pursue formal political roles.
- Visibility and Recognition: Success in student government can enhance visibility and recognition, establishing a track record that may make women more appealing candidates for future office.
Why are female role models important in encouraging women to pursue political office?
Female role models are important in encouraging women to pursue political office because they:
- Inspire Aspirations: They demonstrate that women can succeed in leadership roles, helping others envision themselves in similar positions.
- Challenge Stereotypes: Role models break down gender norms, proving that women can thrive in politics and leadership.
- Normalize Participation: Sharing their experiences normalizes women’s involvement in politics, making it more approachable for newcomers.
Provide examples of successful women leaders who have inspired others?
- Kamala Harris: As the first female Vice President of the United States and the first woman of Black and South Asian descent to hold the office, she has inspired many women to pursue leadership roles in politics.
- Malala Yousafzai: A Nobel Prize-winning activist for girls’ education, her courage in standing up for her beliefs has inspired countless young women to advocate for their rights and pursue education.
- Michelle Obama: The former First Lady of the United States has inspired many through her advocacy for education, healthy living, and women’s empowerment, encouraging women to find their voices.
How do political parties support or hinder female candidates?
Support:
* Candidate Recruitment: Parties that actively seek out and encourage women to run can help increase female representation.
* Training Programs: Many parties offer training and mentorship programs that equip women with skills and knowledge for campaigning and governance.
* Funding and Resources: Parties may provide financial support, campaign materials, and access to networks that are crucial for running successful campaigns.
* Visibility and Endorsements: Supporting female candidates through endorsements can enhance their visibility and credibility among voters.
Hindrance:
* Stereotypes and Bias: Parties may perpetuate gender stereotypes, leading to a lack of support for women candidates or prioritizing male candidates.
* Unequal Resources: Female candidates may receive less funding and fewer resources compared to their male counterparts, affecting their campaign effectiveness.
* Limited Opportunities: In some cases, parties may favor established male incumbents over female challengers, limiting women’s chances of gaining nominations.
What are the outgroup, group, and distribution effects on women’s candidacy?
Outgroup Effects:
* Perceptions of Electability: Women may be seen as outsiders in politics, leading to doubts about their electability compared to male candidates. This perception can deter women from running.
* Voter Bias: Voters may have biases against women candidates, viewing them as less competent or less suitable for leadership roles due to ingrained stereotypes.
Group Effects:
* Support Networks: Solidarity among women can enhance their chances of success.
* Role Models: Successful female politicians inspire others to run.
* Collective Advocacy: Women can work together to push for policies that support female representation.
Distribution Effects:
* Resource Access: The availability of funding and campaign support impacts women’s ability to run effectively.
* Electoral Dynamics: Women’s success may vary by the political leaning of the district.
* Diversity of Candidates: A varied candidate pool can create more opportunities for women.
What is the gender gap in fundraising for female candidates, and how does it affect their campaigns?
financial support and contributions that women candidates receive compared to their male counterparts, often stemming from factors like access to networks, donor biases, and differences in fundraising strategies
What strategies can female candidates use to overcome fundraising challenges?
- Focus on Grassroots Fundraising: Engage in grassroots campaigns to gather small donations from many supporters, fostering community involvement.
Utilize Online Platforms: Use crowdfunding and social media platforms to reach a wider audience and facilitate online donations. - Build Relationships with Donors: Cultivate strong, ongoing relationships with donors through regular communication and engagement to encourage repeat contributions.
- Target Women’s Organizations: Connect with women-focused groups and networks that support female candidates to access dedicated resources and funding.
- Highlight Unique Stories: Share personal narratives and specific policy issues that resonate with potential donors to make a compelling case for support.
- Seek Endorsements: Gain endorsements from influential figures or organizations, which can enhance credibility and attract more donations.
- Participate in Fundraising Training: Engage in training programs that provide skills and strategies for effective fundraising.
- By implementing these strategies, female candidates can enhance their fundraising efforts and build the financial support needed for successful campaigns.
What common stereotypes do female candidates face in elections?
- Lack of Competence: Women are often perceived as less capable or qualified than male candidates, leading to doubts about their expertise.
- Emotionality: Female candidates may be viewed as overly emotional or sensitive, which can undermine their perceived strength and decision-making abilities.
- Family Expectations: Societal assumptions about women’s family roles can lead to questions about their commitment to political positions and priorities.
- Aggressiveness vs. Likeability: Women who assert themselves may be labeled as aggressive, while those who are more accommodating might be seen as weak, creating a difficult balance.
- Appearance Focus: There is often an undue emphasis on a woman’s appearance, with media and public attention diverting from her qualifications and policies.
- Pigeonholing: Female candidates may be stereotyped into discussing only “women’s issues,” limiting their broader political platforms.
- Perceived Electability: There is a stereotype that women are less electable, affecting both voter support and party endorsements.
How does media coverage differ between male and female candidates?
Media coverage of female candidates often emphasizes their appearance and personal lives, reinforces stereotypes, and focuses on “women’s issues,” while male candidates typically receive more overall attention centered on their qualifications and leadership abilities.
What is formal representation, and why is it important?
Official inclusion of diverse groups, particularly women and minorities, in political institutions and decision-making bodies, ensuring that their voices and interests are represented in governance. Formal representation is crucial for creating equitable and responsive governance that reflects the diversity of society.
How does descriptive representation from differ symbolic representation?
Nature:
* Descriptive representation is about “who” is in office, while symbolic representation is about “what” those officials stand for and how they connect with constituents.
Outcome:
* Descriptive representation seeks to ensure that diverse groups are physically represented, whereas symbolic representation focuses on the sentiments and beliefs that representatives embody and promote.
