Exam 2 Flashcards
(232 cards)
1
Q
Why is water in the atmosphere important?
A
*Energy cycle
-water is a greenhouse gas
-transports latent heat
*Rain & Snow
*Weather hazards
*Adiabatic processes: effect air stability
2
Q
Important properties of water
A
-Polar molecule- Good solvent
-All three phases (ice, water, vapor) exist on earth’s surface
-Ice less dense than liquid
-vapor phase stores a lot of latent heat energy
3
Q
The two forms of heat energy
A
Sensible and Latent
4
Q
Vapor pressure definition
A
Pressure exerted by water vapor
-think of molecules bouncing around in a balloon- Increase in molecules=higher pressure, increase in space=lower pressure
-Ptot=Pn2+Po2+Par+ph2o+…
5
Q
Clausius-Claperyron relationship definition
A
warmer air masses can hold more water vapor
6
Q
Saturation vapor pressure definition
A
maximum capacity of air to hold water vapor
7
Q
graphical trend of saturation vapor pressure
A
increases exponentially with temperature
8
Q
What happens if saturation vapor pressure is exceeded?
A
water will condense from vapor to liquid
-why summer days are so humid; warm air can hold more moisture than cold air
9
Q
Relative humidity definition
A
Water-vapor pressure relative to saturation vapor pressure (%)
10
Q
Specific humidity definition
A
water-vapor mass relative to total air mass (g H2O/kg air)
-Higher temperature at 100% relative humidity yields a greater specific humidity than 100% at a lower temperature
11
Q
Relative and specific humidity in winter
A
-High relative; air is saturated
-Low specific; cold air can’t hold many grams of water vapor
12
Q
Relative and specific humidity rates in summer
A
-High relative; air is saturated
-High specific; hot air can hold many grams of water vapor
13
Q
Dew Point definition
A
Temperature at which air of a given vapor pressure becomes saturated (= air reaches 100% relative humidity)
14
Q
What happens to the water at the dew point?
A
It will start to condense from vapor to liquid
15
Q
What is Dew point directly related to?
A
cloud formation
16
Q
When do clouds form?
A
when an airmass passes it’s Dew point
17
Q
Two general ways to form clouds
A
1.) Add moisture
2.) cool air -> air will pass dew point
18
Q
Cloud formation: clouds are aggregations of what?
A
small water droplets
19
Q
Cloud formation: Are clouds vapor water or liquid water?
A
liquid water
20
Q
Cloud formation: when do they form?
A
when air becomes saturated with vapor (before the dew point)
21
Q
Cloud formation: what do they require to form?
A
cloud-condensation nuclei (e.g. aerosols
22
Q
The three basic groups of cloud classification
A
Stratus (layered), cumulus (puffy), cirrus (wispy)
23
Q
how is cloud classification subdivided?
A
according to elevation and size
24
Q
How are clouds formed?
A
ALL are formed by condensation
25
What does warming an air mass tend to do to it
destabilize it (like a hot air balloon- rises with heat)
26
What does adding water vapor to an air mass tend to do to it?
Destabilize it (Adiabatic lapse rates)
27
Adiabatic processes definition
Processes that occur with no net heat exchange between a parcel of air and environment
*Rising parcel expands as air pressure decreases
*Expansion causes temperatures to drop (!)
28
Moist adiabatic rate
6 degrees C/1000 m
29
Dry adiabatic rate
10 degrees C/1000m
30
'moist'
100% relative humidity
31
'dry'
<100% relative humidity
32
do dry or moist air masses cool more slowly?
moist
33
Why do rising moist air masses cool more slowly?
1.) Rising airmass cools (adiabatic expansion)
2.) Cooler air masses have a lower saturation capacity (Clausius-Clapeyron relationship)
3.)Water condenses when air reaches saturation
4.)Condensing water loses latent heat energy, converts to sensible heat energy, which slows rate of cooling
34
Normal lapse rate
6.4 degrees C/km (3.5 degrees F/1000')
35
Linkage of adiabatic rates of cooling to atmospheric stability
-An airmass that's warmer than surrounding air will tend to be buoyant, continue to rise
-because moist air masses cool more slowly, they will rise further
36
When an airmass reaches the dew point while cooling, what happens
switches from dry to moist adiabatic lapse rate
37
Review: four forces that drive atmospheric motion
1.) Gravity
2.) Pressure Gradient force
3.) Coriolis force
4.) Friction
*air Pushed from high to low pressure, Deflected by coriolis force, Slowed by friction
38
Review: Which latitudes receive more concentrated insolation
Low latitudes; they receive 2.5x more radiation than high lats
39
Why are surface temperatures highest in the tropics?
The thermal equator
40
Thermal Equator definition
Line connection zones of maximum surface temperature
41
How can the major features of atmospheric circulation be understood?
1.) The four forces that drive atmospheric circulation
2.) Global distributions of heat energy and temperature
42
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
A narrow band of low pressure the encircles the earth near the equator where the trade winds of the northern and southern hemisphere meet
43
Relationship between Hadley Cells and Intertropical convergence zone(ITCZ)
1.) Heating air at equator (due to concentrated sunlight)
-air warms, expands
-water evaporates
2.) clouds form as air rises, precipitation
3.) High-altitude air moves away, cools, descends
4.) Descending air warms, absorbs moisture
44
The noticed relationship between clouds and the ITCZ
There is a persistent band of clouds around the ITCZ
45
Does air pressure OR the ITCZ track the Thermal equator?
Both
46
Does the thermal equator OR the ITCZ move seasonally?
Both; the ITCZ follows the thermal equator
47
The three major wind zones
Trade Winds, Westerlies, Polar easterlies
48
The two areas of weak/variable winds
Doldrums (Equator), Horse latitudes (subtropics)
49
How does the Coriolis effect affect the major wind zones?
Directs them left or right, depending on the hemisphere
50
Global patterns of surface air pressure: Subtropical highs due to;
Descending air from Hadley cell
51
Global patterns of surface air pressure: Polar lows due to;
-At boundary between warm westerlies rising over polar air
-stronger in winter
52
Is the position of Subtropical Highs and polar lows constant or changing
Seasonally changing
53
What wind zone is the most strongly affected by the Coriolis Force?
The Westerlies
54
Why are the westerlies the most strongly affected by the Coriolis effect?
The Coriolis effect is stronger towards the poles )b/c higher vorticity [spin] at poles)
55
Polar Easterlies definition
cold, dense air, flows away from pole- also known as polar vortex
56
What happens to the westerlies in relation to the polar easterlies?
They get pushed up, over the polar easterlies (due to heat differentiation)
57
Definition of the Polar Front
Boundary between westerlies and easterlies
58
Land-water temp contrast
land heats/cools faster than oceans
59
Day sea breezes
land heats faster-hot air rises-low surface pressures-air replaces from ocean
surface winds move onshore
60
Night sea breezes
reverse, surface winds move offshore
61
Monsoons
Same process as sea breezes, but now caused by seasonal differential heating of land and ocean
62
Monsoons in summer
surface winds move onshore-lost of rain
63
winter monsoons
surface winds move offshore
64
Jet stream definition
Bands of high-speed upper-atmosphere air flow, found where pressure gradients are steepest
65
The two jet streams
Polar Jet stream, subtropical jet stream
66
Rossby waves definition
giant meanders in the jet stream- caused by frictional shearing between westerlies and polar air masses- responsible for much of our weekly variations in weather due to our proximity
67
Trough
dip in jet stream caused by low pressure from poler
68
Ridge
point in jet stream caused by high pressure
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convergence
from high to low
70
divergence
from low to high
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What is the Jet stream an example of?
Geostrophic flow
pressure gradient, deflected by coriolis force, tropopause- highest height over equator, lowest over poles
72
Weather deffinition
Short-term, day to day
73
Climate deffinition
Multi-year averages
74
Air masses definition
regional masses of air with mostly homogenous properties (temp, humidity, stability etc)
75
What accounts for many of our day to day changes in weather
movements of air masses (cold v warm)
76
North American air masses
Continental arctic (cA), Continental polar (cP), Maritime polar (mP), Maritime tropical (mT), Continental tropical (cT)
77
what happens to air masses as they move?
They are modified- lake effect(get water as it goes over lake), Orographic (rain shadows)(gets water from ocean, goes up mountain, colder air makes it rain, other side of mountain is dry)
78
Adiabatic processes def
processes that occur with no net heat exchange between a parcel of air and environment
-Rising parcel expands as air pressure decreases
-expansion causes temps to drop
79
Dry adiabatic laps rate
10 degrees C/1000 m
80
Moist adiabatic lapse rate
6 degrees C/1000m
81
Relative humidity differentials
'moist'=100% relative humidity
'dry'=<100% relative humidity
82
Importance of atmospheric lifting
produces clouds and (perhaps) precipitation
-lifting air cools and may pass saturation capacity
83
Chinooks def
warm and dry winds that flow downslope. chinooks are warm and dry because of adiabatic expansion
84
convectional def
surface warms, heats air masses, which rise (convectional cloud)
85
convergent def
Air masses converge on low-pressure zone push air up
-important in tropics where tem differences are small
86
Frontal lifting def
caused by collisions among air masses
-mainly a mid latitude phenomenon
87
Cold fronts explination
-advancing cold air quickly lifts warm air
-steep front->strong precipitation, storms
-Move relatively fast
88
Warm fronts explanation
-advancing warm air slides over cold air
-gradual lifting ->drizzle and overcast skies
-move relatively slow
89
Mid-latitude cyclones def
weather systems that are centered on low pressure zone
90
Mid-lat cyclones attributes
-Low pressure causes surface convergence
-draws in warm air from south, cold air from north
-cold and warm fronts rotate central flow
91
Warm front=? cold front=?
broad, narrow
92
4 stages of development of mid-lat cyclones
1.)Cyclogenesis
2.)Open stage
3.)Occluded stage
4.)Dissolving stage
93
Cyclogenesis def
low-pressure zone develops at boundary between warm and cold air masses
94
Open stage def
warm front and cold front rotate around low
95
Occluded stage def
cold front starts catching up to warm front
96
Dissolving stage
warm air and cold air mixed together, low pressure zone disappears (from trough to ridge)
97
Cyclone storm tracks attributes
-carried west to east by westerlies
-moisture sources: Pacific, Gulf of mexico
-Tracks shift seasonally
98
Hurricanes def-ish
intense form of a tropical cyclone
99
Formation of tropical cyclones
-start as a mild low-pressure system, called easterly wave
-air converges on low, rises
-low-pressure wave deepens, air starts to rotate
100
Hurricane genesis
1.) centered on very low-pressure zones
2.) winds converge, spiral inwards
3.) water evaporates from ocean surface
4.) air rises, cools-> water condenses
5.)Rain and release of latent heat energy
6.) Latent heat energy converted to wind energy
101
Why do hurricanes spawn in warm subtropical waters?
1.) warm water-lots of heat energy
2.) coriolis rotation (weak Coriolis in tropics, so no hurricanes there)
102
Storm surge
water rises due to:
1.) Drop in air pressure (only ~5% surge)
2.) Push of water to coast
103
Storm Waves
large waves generated by strong winds
104
Percent of global water in oceans
97.2%
104
Measuring hurricane strength:
Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale (1-5)
105
Percent of carbon in the ocean
93%
106
How much heat energy is transferred to high latitudes by the ocean?
50%
107
How does the ocean surve as a buffer?
It absorbs ~25% of all CO2 we emit from fossil fuels
108
what percent of the earth is water?
71%
109
Amount of carbon stored in planet tier distribution
1.) oceans
2.)vegetation and soil
3.)atmosphere
110
Attributes of the vertical structure in the ocean
strong vertical gradients in temp, salinity, density, and light
-Deep ocean is colder, saltier, denser, dark
111
Is the ocean's vertical structure stable?
Yes
112
Two layers of ocean
1.) shallow mixed ocean
2.) deep ocean
113
Shallow mixed ocean attributes
-top 100-150 m
-circulation driven by wind
-well-mixed
-sunlit->photosynthesis
114
deep ocean attributes
-below 100m
-circulation driven by density gradients
-slow circulation (1,000 yrs)
115
Attributes of the stratification of oceanic zones
strongest in the low latitudes, weakest at poles
116
key facts of surface ocean circulation
wind driven, ocean currents travel at 90 degrees to wind direction, dominated by subtropical gyres
117
Three zones of surface winds
Polar winds (from pole, down do the left), westerlies(mid latitudes, up ro right), trade winds (from bottom of westerlies to equator, down, to the left) (NHem)
118
Why are surface currents pushed by wind at 90 degrees
wind drags surface water, surface water drags subsurface water layers, each water layer is deflected by coriolis (cork skrew) (known as Ekman spiral)
119
tropic winds cause water what?
divergence- NE trades, SE trades both flow towards the ITCZ-water flows 90 degrees from wind-away from one another
120
Subtropical winds cause water what?
convergence- Westerlies and NE trades flow away from one another, subsequent water flows towards each other
121
Gyres def
large, circular ocean currents centered on subtropical convergence- 5 dominate surface ocean circulation
122
5 subtropical gyres that dominate surface ocean circulation major features
subtropical gyres, equatorial counter-currents, polar gyres and Antarctic circumpolar current
123
Gulf stream's western arm of North Atlantic gyre attributes
carries heat from equator to arctic, warms Europe and coastal North America
124
Deep ocean circulation Key Facts
Driven by density gradients, linked together into one 'global conveyor belt', slow: takes about 1000 yrs for deep ocean to complete one cycle
125
Why doesn't the ocean overturn?
stable stratification (2% mixing zone, 18% thermocline transition zone, 80% deep cold zone
126
two ways to make surface water sink
1.) make it colder
2.) make it saltier
-ice formation brine exclusion (poles)
-Evaporate lots of water leaving salt (Mediterranean-float)
*Most deepwater formation occurs at polse
127
How much CO2 is absorbed by the ocean that is released by fossil fuel & good/bad news
1/4 to 1/3
-good: 'ocean sink' slows down rate of climate change
-bad: Added CO2 increases the acidity of oceans
128
CO2 and ocean acidification process
-carbon dioxide and water react to form carbonic acid
-carbonic acid dissolves to release hydrogen ions
-Acidity=low ph=acidic=high concentrations of H+
129
How much as ocean PH decreases over last 20 yrs?
0.1- a 26% increase in concentration of hydrogen ions
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Why is ocean acidity a problem for some species?
H+ react and remove CO3^-2 which is what many species make their shells out of
131
where is ocean acidification begining?
At the top, Anthropogenic CO2 still mixing downward into world oceans
132
water availability in the us
-unevenly distributed world wide and in us
-1.1 B people lack safe drinking water
-water availability exasperated by growing population, climate change
133
Hydrologic cycle overview
Precipitation, Evaporation, Transpiration, Runoff
134
Hydrologic precipitation
transfers water from atmosphere to oceans and land
135
Hydrologic Evaporation
transfers water from oceans and land to atmosphere
136
Hydrologic transpiration
transfers water from plants to atmosphere
137
Hydrologic runoff
transfers water from land to oceans
138
Surface water balance key facts
1.) A balance between supply (precipitation) and demand (evaporation and transpiration)
2.) water Deficits or Surpluses result from imbalances between demand and supply
3.) water Deficits cause loss of water from land surface
4.) water surpluses can go;
a.)recharge soil moisture,
b.) recharge groundwater,
c.) stream runoff
139
Water balance
Surface water balance= supply - demand -/+ deficit/surplus
140
Surface water balance: Supply
supply=precipitation=rain+snow
141
supply attributes
-highest in tropics- due to ITCZ and Hadley cells
-Also high in subtropical regions where monsoons are strong
142
Precipitation in North America atributes
-High in the Pacific Northwest and Eastern US
-caused by moisture advection from oceans, mountain rain shadows
143
Surface water balance: Demand, the two types
Evaporation, Transpiration
144
Evaporation def
physical conversion of liquid water to vapor
145
Transpiration def
escape of water vapor from plant stomata
146
Evapotranspiration (ET)
the combination of evaporation and transpiration
147
Global patterns of evapotranspiration
Highest in subtropical oceans:
-warm and plenty of water
-cloudless conditions (under the descending limb of Hadley cell)
148
Potential Evapotranspiration def/attributes
:maximum possible given unlimited water supply
PET highest when:
-High temps, High sunlight, windy
149
Actual Evapotranspiration (ATE) atributes
is always less than or equal to PET
149
Water balance: Deficit
If PET>Precipitation->Water Deficit
150
Water balance: Surplus
If Precipitation>PET->water surplus
151
Three places for surplus to go
Runoff to streams, soil recharge, groundwater recharge
152
Runoff is high when:
1.) Precipitation is high (tropics,coast)
2.)Evapotranspiration is low (artic)
153
Climate change effects on rainfall and runoff:
Wet get wetter and dry get drier
-water surpluses (runoff) projected to increase in upper latitudes, tropics
-Runoff projected to decrease in western US, southern Europe
154
(Soil precharge) Percolation def
The gravitational pull of water downwards through pore spaces in soil and rock
155
Porosity def
the amount of pore space in rock or sediments
156
Permeability def
The degree of connectedness among pores
157
EX. Swiss cheese permeability and porosity:
High porosity, low permeability
158
Hygroscopic water def
bound too tightly to soil particles for plants to access
159
Gravitational water def
escapes down too quickly for plants to access
160
Plants get their water from soil, but not all soil water is available to plants... why?
Hygroscopic and Gravitational water
161
Water availability is highest for soils with a mixture of grain sizes... why?
Loams, coarse grains, fine grains
162
Loams
A mixture of clay, slit, and sand
163
Coarse grains (Sand)
pore spaces big, high gravitational water loss
164
Fine Grains (clay)
pore spaces small, mostly hygroscopic water
165
Groundwater def
water beneath the surface
166
Vadose zone def
mixture of air and water
167
saturated zone def
all pores filled by water
168
water table def
the top of the saturated (phreatic) zone
169
Basic behaviors of ground water
-water flows by gravity-pulled downwards
-flow is slow-due to high friction, can take decades
-water table surface mostly follows contours of land surface
-wells create cones of depression, lowered water table
170
Aquifers def
permeable rocks and sediments (eg. sandstones)-> reservoirs of groundwater
171
Aquicludes def
impermeable rocks and sediments (eg. shales)
172
Confined aquifers def
capped by impermeable layer of rock
173
unconfined aquifers
permeable sediments and rocks above
174
Groundwater mining def
when rate of water pumping is higher that rate of recharge
175
Ogallala Aquifer attributes
-27% of US irrigated land lies over the aquifer
-30% of US irrigation
-Since 1950 reduced saturated volume by ~9%
-Drinking water to 82% of the 2.3 million people
176
Groundwater contamination def
when toxic materials are introduced into groundwater
177
sources of groundwater contamination
Landfills, Agricultural runoff, septic tanks, industrial waste, oil and gas drilling
178
Fracking def
fracturing rocks underground to increase permeability, return natural gas
179
Fracking attributes
-A slurry of water, chemicals, and sands pumped underground to fracture rocks
-will these chemicals (and natural gas) contaminate groundwater?- yes it can, the jury is still out though
180
Aridity def
long-term scarcity of water (the Saharan Desert is arid)
181
Drought def
a short-term lack of water (wisconsin sometimes experiences droughts)
182
Droughts, aridity, and climate change
-Climate change MAY increase frequency or severity of droughts
-climate change LIKELY to increase aridity in Southwestern US
183
Biogeography def
The study of the processes determining the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time
184
Species def
a group of organisms capable of interbreeding
185
Biogeography question of species:
Why are some species found in some places and not others? What controls species distribution?
186
Three sets of factors that determine
Climate and environment, Interactions with other species, dispersal constraints and barriers to migration
187
Climates roll in species distribution
at a continental to global scales, it is the primary control on species distribution
188
examples of climate controls on species distribution
-winter severity (Coldest temps of the year)
-Growing seasons warmth and length
-total annual precipitation
-drought severity and frequency
*species vary in their sensitivity to climate variables (ie trees, bc can't move)
189
Ecosystems def
A self-regulating set of organisms interacting with their physical environment
190
Biogeography and Ecosystem Ecology
What processes control the flow of energy, carbon, and nutrients into and through ecosystems? How does the ecosystem process feedback to rest of earth system?
191
How do Ecosystems and Biospheres help land surface and atmosphere?
they are a crucial regulator of feedbacks between land surface and atmosphere
192
Biogeophysical feedbacks def
affecting energy and water cycling
193
Biogeochemical feedbacks def
affecting cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements
194
Biogeochemical feedback ex:
wetlands (bacterial respiration increases with heat), global warming, and methane (released by bacteria during respiration) (Methane increases global warming-is a ghg)
195
Biogeophysical feedback ex:
arctic treeline (rtee range expands northwards bc too warm)('mask' snow on ground), albedo (decreases bc trees blocking), warming (temp rises bc less albedo)
196
Global terrestrial biomes
similar regional climates produce similar plant physiognomic adaptations and vegetation structure
197
Two most important factors determining biome distribution
Temperature and precipitation
198
Tropical rainforest
Warm and wet all year, little/no seasonality, dense evergreen vegetation, freezing-intolerant
199
Tropical seasonal forest
Drought deciduousness, ex. seasonally dry subtropic forests is St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
200
Tropical savanna
warm but seasonally dry, fires common, drought-adapted trees and herbs, dominated bt large herbivores
201
Deserts
Hot and dry, sparse veg, extremely drought-adapted
202
Mediterranean
Moderate temps, dry growing season, fires common, Drought-and fire-adapted taxa
203
Temperate grasslands
semi-arid:water scarce at least seasonally, grasslands that are drought adapted, good soils for agriculture (with irrigation)
204
Temperate forest
seasonal temperatures, wither freezing, wet growing season, deciduous trees, freezing-tolerant
205
Temperate rainforest
Maritime climates- mild winters, cool summers, lots of rain, summer fog, evergreen conifers, high canopy density and biomass, ie washington
206
The Boreal forest attributes
Dominated by evergreen trees, precipitation>PET, limited by light availability and temperature (bc in upper canada and russia/norway, sweden, finland), low biological diversity
207
Tundra
Very short growing season, freezing most of year (permafrost), low-stature trees, shrubs, herbs
208
Overview of biomes:
each biome occupies a particular climate- as the climates change, the distribution of species and ecosystems are expected to change
209
Global warming breakdown
fossil fuel burning->higher concentrations of ghgs (CO2, CH4, N2O) in atmosphere->Less longwave radiation escaping to space->more energy staying in earth system->higher tems are earth's surface->Ice melt, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, etc.
210
How much have the global mean temps risen since 1900 and accelerated since 1970s
0.85 degrees C
211
The earths energy balance
Energy incoming=energy outgoing
100 SW in= 30 SW out + 70 LW out
212
What does global warming indicate about earth's energy budget
It is not perfectly balanced
213
Three general possibilities of energy balance
E in=E out -> no temp change
E in < E out -> Earth cools
E in > E out -> Earth warms
214
Greenhouse Effect def
atmosphere is (mostly) transparent to visible light and (mostly) absorptive of infrared EMR
215
Three biggest GHGs in atmosphere
Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Water vapor
216
Fossil fuel def
Hydrocarbons created by photosynthesis 100's of millions of years ago (oil, coal, natural gas)
217
Opposite of photosynthesis
combustion
218
combustion def
burning fossil fuels releases energy (which we use) and GHGs (a problem)
219
Why is the concentration of GHGs easily changed?
atmosphere is thin and low density, these are traces gases- found at low concentrations in atmosphere
220
Climate change science four key questions
Detection: are climates changing, Attribution: what is causing changes, Projection: what will happen in future, Effects: what effects will these climate changes have? How can we adapt to these changes
221
Detection
The relationship between burning fossil fuels and the warming of the earth is unequivocal (1970s, 0.85 degrees C)
222
Other signs of warming
ocean temps rising, sea level rising, snow/ice cover decreasing, glaciers are melting almost everywhere
223
Attribution
Requires data (observations of past changes) and Climate models (to test alternative explanations for observed changes)
224
Natural forcings
volcanic eruptions, sun variations
225
Anthropogenic Forcings
GHGs, Aerosols
226
What type of climate model best represents out current trrend?
Anthropogenic forcings- meaning it fossil fuels- not nature
227
Projected warmings
greater over land than over water
228
projected changes in precipitation
wet regions (tropics, middle and upper lats) get wetter
dry regions (subtropics) get drier
229
potential effects of climate change
Species range shifts, extinctions
Ice melts and sea level rises
agricultural effects
pest/ disease spread
230
Who is most vulnerable to climate change?
-coastal lowland countries (eg Holland, Bangladesh, various Pacific islands)
-High-lat regions (eg Alaska, Northern Canada and Russia)
-Arid to semi-arid regions (eg Southwestern US, California and Great Plains states, sub-Saharan Africa)
-Developing countries with few resources to adapt to climate change
