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Psych 110 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define perception and sensation

A

Sensation involves the sensory receptors and nervous system receiving stimuli from the environment, while perception is the interpretation of these sensory inputs by the brain

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2
Q

Identify all the senses (vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch, vestibular

A

Senses include vision, hearing (audition), smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), touch, and the vestibular sense for balance and spatial orientation

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3
Q

Explain the opponent-process theory of color vision

A

This theory suggests color vision is enabled by opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black), with certain cells stimulated by one color and inhibited by its opponent

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4
Q

Distinguish between the difference threshold and other sensory thresholds

A

The difference threshold (just noticeable difference) is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, whereas absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

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5
Q

Analyze the impact of culture on perception

A

Cultural experiences and context influence perception, as seen in cultural-specific interpretations of visual illusions and differing attention to detail or context in visual tasks

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6
Q

Describe Gestalt principles

A

Gestalt principles include proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and figure-ground, emphasizing the brain’s ability to create whole perceptions from incomplete elements

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7
Q

Interpret the Muller-Lyer illusion

A

This illusion involves two lines of equal length appearing unequal due to arrow-like ends, showcasing perceptual misinterpretation due to visual context

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8
Q

Explain selective attention

A

Selective attention refers to focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others, allowing efficient processing but potentially leading to inattentional blindness

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9
Q

Label the main eye structures and describe their roles in vision

A

Key structures: Cornea (focuses light), Lens (further focuses light), Retina (contains photoreceptors), Fovea (central high-acuity area), Pupil (controls light entry), Iris (controls pupil size

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10
Q

Summarize the trichromatic theory of color vision

A

This theory posits three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue, combining to produce color perception

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11
Q

Describe the gate control theory of pain

A

Pain signals can be blocked by spinal “gates” influenced by other sensory signals, explaining why pressure or other stimuli can mitigate pain perception

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12
Q

Compare bottom-up processing with top-down processing

A

Bottom-up processing involves sensory input guiding perception, while top-down processing uses prior knowledge to interpret sensory data

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13
Q

Define hue in the context of vision

A

Hue is the color perceived from light, determined by its wavelength

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14
Q

Evaluate the research on eyewitness testimony by Elizabeth Loftus.

A

Loftus found that memory is reconstructive and susceptible to misinformation, suggesting eyewitness accounts can be unreliable

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15
Q

Relate the findings of the visual cliff study to theories of perception.

A

The study showed infants avoid a perceived drop-off, indicating depth perception develops early and may be partly innate

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16
Q

Define consciousness

A

Consciousness is the awareness of ourselves and our environment, encompassing thoughts, sensations, and perceptions

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17
Q

Explain biological rhythms

A

Biological rhythms are regular cycles in bodily functions, such as circadian rhythms (24-hour cycle) and ultradian rhythms (e.g., 90-minute sleep cycles)

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18
Q

Summarize the stages of sleep

A

Sleep includes stages: NREM-1 (light sleep), NREM-2, NREM-3 (deep sleep), and REM (rapid eye movement, associated with dreaming)

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19
Q

Evaluate the purpose of sleep

A

Sleep aids in protection, recuperation, memory consolidation, creative problem-solving, and growth

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20
Q

Identify all the sleep disorders discussed (insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, etc.)

A

Disorders include insomnia (difficulty sleeping), narcolepsy (sudden sleep attacks), sleep apnea (breathing stops), and night terrors

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21
Q

Classify the drugs discussed in class (cocaine, caffeine, marijuana, opioids, hallucinogens, etc.).

A

Depressants** (alcohol), stimulants (cocaine, nicotine), hallucinogens (LSD, marijuana), opiates (morphine, heroin)

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22
Q

Explain drug interactions and their potential dangers.

A

Combining depressants (e.g., alcohol with barbiturates) can enhance effects, leading to severe consequences like respiratory failure

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23
Q

Define drug tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal.

A

Tolerance**: needing more for the same effect; dependence: reliance on a substance; withdrawal: physical/psychological symptoms after stopping

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24
Q

Evaluate the purpose of dreams.

A

Theories propose dreams process emotions, consolidate memories, stimulate neural pathways, and reflect cognitive development

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25
Analyze why teens might begin using drugs
Reasons include peer pressure, curiosity, stress relief, and rebellion; teens may be influenced by cultural portrayals and social modeling
26
Define learning
Learning is acquiring new, enduring information or behaviors
27
Differentiate between classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning theories
Classical conditioning**: linking stimuli (Pavlov); **operant conditioning**: consequences shape behavior (Skinner); **observational learning**: learning by watching others (Bandura)
28
Apply knowledge of classical conditioning to label UR, US, CS, CR, and neutral stimulus
US**: unconditioned stimulus; **UR**: unconditioned response; **CS**: conditioned stimulus; **CR**: conditioned response; **neutral stimulus** is initially unassociated
29
Define extinction and shaping
Extinction**: diminishing of a conditioned response; **shaping**: reinforcing steps toward a desired behavior
30
Explain stimulus generalization
Tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
31
Compare reinforcement and punishment (both positive and negative)
Positive reinforcement** adds a reward; **negative reinforcement** removes discomfort; **positive punishment** adds an aversive stimulus; **negative punishment** removes a pleasant stimulus
32
Illustrate the schedules of reinforcement
Fixed-ratio** (reward after set responses), **variable-ratio** (reward after variable responses), **fixed-interval** (first response after set time), **variable-interval** (first response after variable time)
33
Explain the Premack principle
Higher-frequency behaviors can reinforce lower-frequency ones (e.g., dessert after vegetables)
34
Evaluate the most effective way to discipline a child
Reinforcement-based methods are generally more effective than punishment, especially when reinforcement is immediate and consistent
35
Analyze when punishment might not work to change behavior
Punishment may fail if it causes fear, models aggression, or if not applied consistently
36
Explain the law of effect
Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to recur (Thorndike)
37
Describe a token economy
A behavioral system where tokens for desired behaviors are exchanged for rewards
38
Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers
Primary**: naturally reinforcing (food); **secondary**: acquire power through association (money)
39
Explain systematic desensitization
Gradual exposure to feared stimuli paired with relaxation techniques reduces anxiety
40
Analyze Bandura’s research on aggression and its implications for violent video games and media.
Bandura’s Bobo doll study showed that children imitate aggressive behaviors, suggesting that media violence could influence real-world aggression
41
Define memory
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information
42
Classify different types of memory (semantic, procedural, declarative, episodic)
Semantic**: facts, **procedural**: skills, **declarative**: facts/events, **episodic**: personal experiences
43
Explain the tip of the tongue phenomenon
Temporary inability to retrieve information, despite feeling close to recall
44
Differentiate between anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
Anterograde**: can’t form new memories; **retrograde**: can’t recall past memories
45
Define retroactive interference
New information interferes with recalling old information
46
Apply strategies for learning information (mnemonic devices, chunking, spaced practice, etc.
Techniques like chunking, mnemonics, and spaced practice enhance memory retention
47
Explain Miller’s magic number
Miller proposed short-term memory can hold about 7 (±2) items
48
Analyze the serial position effect
Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle
49
Define personality.
Personality is a pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterizes a person
50
Distinguish between objective and subjective personality tests.
Objective tests** are structured, like the MMPI; **subjective tests** include projective tests like TAT
51
Explain how personality is assessed
Assessed through inventories like the MMPI or projective tests like the Rorschach
52
Identify different types of projective personality tests (Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion, etc.)
Rorschach** inkblots, **TAT** images, and **sentence completion** tests are common projective tests
53
*Explain the MMPI tests and scales
MMPI assesses personality traits and psychopathology through a series of true/false questions
54
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of projective tests
Advantages**: insight into unconscious; **disadvantages**: low reliability and validity
55
Define key testing concepts (norms, bell curve, statistics)
Norms**: standards based on population data; **bell curve**: normal distribution; **statistics**: analyzing data patterns
56
Describe the Big Five theory (OCEAN).**
- Personality dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism
57
Summarize the contributions of Allport and Cattell to personality theory
Allport**: traits shape personality; **Cattell**: developed a 16-trait model using factor analysis
57
Define libido and thanatos.**
- **Libido**: life drive (promotes survival); **Thanatos**: death drive (linked to aggression and risky behavior)
58
Explain factor analysis.**
- Statistical method identifying clusters of traits, used to categorize personality traits
59
Explain Freud’s id, ego, and superego theory.**
- The **id** seeks pleasure, **ego** mediates, and **superego** upholds morals
60
Summarize Karen Horney’s theory.**
- Horney emphasized social influences on personality and critiqued Freud's views on gender
61
Identify different defense mechanisms.**
- Mechanisms include repression, denial, projection, rationalization, displacement
62
Explain Freud’s psychosexual stages and the implications of fixation at each stage.**
- Stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital, with fixation potentially leading to adult personality issues
63
Summarize Maslow’s theory of self-actualization.**
- Maslow’s hierarchy prioritizes needs, culminating in self-actualization, where one reaches their full potential
64
Explain Roger’s theory of positive regard, congruence, and conditions of worth.**
- Rogers argued that people thrive under unconditional positive regard, with congruence between self-image and actions
65
Evaluate research on personality based on twin studies.**
- Twin studies suggest significant genetic influence on personality but also the impact of environmental factors
66
Describe a hardy personality according to the textbook.**
- Hardy individuals are stress-resistant, see challenges positively, and feel a sense of control
67
Differentiate between extroversion and introversion.**
- Extroverts are energized by social interaction, while introverts recharge through solitude

Psych 110 (1 decks)

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