exam 2

Question 1

What was the believed treatment for smallpox in medieval times?

Answer 1

The color red, believed to expel humors from the body.

Question 2

Who introduced the practice of inoculation to Western medicine from Turkey?

Answer 2

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.

Question 3

What did Lady Montagu do to promote inoculation in England?

Answer 3

She had her daughter inoculated and later tried the procedure on prisoners and orphans.

Question 4

How did Onesimus influence the spread of inoculation in America?

Answer 4

He taught Cotton Mather about inoculation, which he had received in Africa, leading to its promotion in Boston.

Question 5

Who was Edward Jenner and what was his contribution to smallpox vaccination?

Answer 5

Edward Jenner was an English doctor who developed the smallpox vaccine using cowpox material.

Question 6

What was the major contribution of James Jurin to inoculation?

Answer 6

He used statistical analysis to compare the risk of dying from smallpox versus inoculation, supporting inoculation’s benefits.

Question 7

What legal case upheld the state’s right to mandate vaccination?

Answer 7

Jacobson v. Massachusetts (1905).

Question 8

What was the ultimate outcome of the smallpox eradication campaign?

Answer 8

Smallpox was eradicated worldwide in 1977.

Question 9

What was the “French Pox”?

Answer 9

A name for syphilis, which became widespread in Europe after Columbus’s crew brought it back.

Question 9

What did “one night with Venus, a lifetime with Mercury” refer to?

Answer 9

The treatment of syphilis with mercury-based ointments.

Question 10

How did Philippe Ricord contribute to understanding syphilis?

Answer 10

He identified the three stages of syphilis and differentiated it from gonorrhea.

Question 11

What bacterium causes syphilis?

Answer 11

Treponema pallidum.

Question 11

What is Salvarsan, and why was it significant?

Answer 11

Salvarsan was an early treatment for syphilis, discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1909.

Question 11

What was Salvarsan also known as?

Answer 11

Compound 606.

Question 12

What unethical study occurred in the 20th century regarding syphilis?

Answer 12

The Tuskegee study, where African American men with syphilis were untreated for decades.

Question 12

How did the advent of penicillin impact the treatment of syphilis?

Answer 12

Penicillin provided an effective and reliable cure for syphilis in the mid-20th century.

Question 13

Who were the key scientists involved in the development of Salvarsan?

Answer 13

Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata.

Question 14

What was the revolutionary concept behind Salvarsan that Ehrlich coined?

Answer 14

The idea of a “magic bullet”, a compound that specifically targets and kills disease-causing microorganisms without harming the body.

Question 15

Why is Salvarsan considered an important step in the history of medicine?

Answer 15

it was one of the first examples of chemotherapy, where a drug specifically targeted a pathogen.

Question 16

After its development, Salvarsan played a role in the medical treatment of syphilis until which antibiotic replaced it?

Answer 16

Penicillin, after its widespread use in the 1940s.

Question 17

How did Salvarsan contribute to the development of other antibiotics and chemotherapy treatments?

Answer 17

It helped establish the idea of targeting specific microorganisms with chemical treatments, paving the way for the antibiotic era.

Question 22

Idea: European voyages of discovery relied on advancements in ships, maps, and instruments to expand knowledge of geography, flora, fauna, human populations, and diseases. This marked the beginning of the First Global Era.

Answer 22

Key Points:
Expanding geographic knowledge through exploration.
Inaugurated first global connections, including the exchange of diseases and goods.

Question 23

Main Idea: The Renaissance saw the revival and transmission of ancient Greek knowledge, reshaping the study of nature

Answer 23

Key Points:
Greek works were translated, transmitted, and published.
The discovery of new lands led to a questioning of ancient authorities.

Question 24

Main Idea: The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450-55, revolutionized the spread of knowledge.

Answer 24

Key Points:
First movable type printing press in Mainz, Germany.
Increased book production, reduced costs, and allowed for wider dissemination of knowledge.

Question 25

Main Idea: The printing press drastically transformed intellectual and scientific pursuits.

Answer 25

Key Points: Books became cheaper and produced faster than hand-copied manuscripts. Facilitated the creation of libraries, making comparisons and the avoidance of errors easier.

Question 26

Main Idea: The Renaissance saw a shift in offensive and defensive warfare due to advancements in artillery and military strategy.

Answer 26

Key Points: Rise of artillery changed the way wars were fought. Geometry played a role in military strategy.

Question 27

Main Idea: The Reformation (1517) led by figures like Martin Luther challenged the unity of European Christianity.

Answer 27

Key Points: Marked by the break from the Catholic Church. Caused a major shift in religious thought and the study of nature.

Question 28

Main Idea: Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) is credited with discovering the Americas, though he thought he reached Asia.

Answer 28

Key Points: Relied on Ptolemy's geography (latitude/longitude). His voyages resulted in the Columbian Exchange of goods, plants, animals, and diseases.

Question 29

Main Idea: The Columbian Exchange describes the global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases.

Answer 29

Key Points: Diseases such as smallpox, malaria, and yellow fever spread from Europe and Africa to the Americas. Syphilis traveled from America to Europe and Africa.

Question 30

Main Idea: Smallpox devastated indigenous populations in the Americas, contributing more to conquest than warfare.

Answer 30

Key Points: Smallpox spread rapidly and decimated populations. Resulted in slave trade from West Africa due to the loss of native labor.

Question 31

Main Idea: The Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Answer 31

Key Points: The Ottomans used artillery and mercenary forces to breach the city's defenses. Greek scholars fled West, bringing ancient knowledge with them.

Question 32

Main Idea: Ancient texts in Greek and Latin played a crucial role in the intellectual revival of the Renaissance

Answer 32

Key Points: Hippocrates, Aristotle, Euclid, Pliny, Ptolemy. Works in medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and natural history were revived.

Question 33

Main Idea: The spread of books and the formation of libraries were key outcomes of the printing press.

Answer 33

Key Points: Incunabula: Books published up to 1500. Facilitated comparison of different editions and error-free texts.

Question 34

Main Idea: The Reformation led to religious divisions, while diseases raised religious questions.

Answer 34

Key Points: Luther and Erasmus had differing approaches to reform. Epidemics like smallpox were viewed as divine punishment.

Question 35

Main Idea: Smallpox was one of the most devastating diseases in the Renaissance, killing millions.

Answer 35

Key Points: Symptoms included fever, rashes, and raised pustules. Smallpox was responsible for high mortality rates, including royalty.

Question 36

Main Idea: Smallpox spread through Europe after the Crusades and was a major cause of death.

Answer 36

Key Points: Smallpox became more widespread after Columbus's voyages to the Americas. Biological warfare: Spaniards intentionally spread the disease.

Question 37

Main Idea: Lady Mary Montagu introduced the practice of smallpox inoculation in Europe.

Answer 37

Key Points: She described a method of inoculation used in Turkey that was later adopted in England.

Question 38

Main Idea: The Supreme Court ruled that states can mandate vaccination during public health emergencies.

Answer 38

Key Points: Massachusetts required smallpox vaccinations. Jacobson refused vaccination and was fined, challenging individual liberties versus public health.

Question 39

Main Idea: The smallpox vaccine's origins were unclear, with debates about whether it derived from cowpox or horsepox.

Answer 39

Key Points: The vaccinia virus used in the vaccine may have been derived from different animals. Edward Jenner speculated the vaccine came from horses, modified by passage through cows.

Question 40

Main Idea: During the medieval period, red was believed to be a treatment for smallpox due to the humoral theory.

Answer 40

Key Points: Red color was thought to expel the noxious "humors" from the body. This belief was akin to the myth of the red flag’s power to provoke bulls. Queen Elizabeth I survived smallpox by using this treatment, but it was not because of its efficacy

Question 41

Main Idea: Early treatments for smallpox involved inducing sweating to expel noxious matter.

Answer 41

Key Points: Patients were locked in hot rooms to induce sweating. Thomas Sydenham, a physician, attempted to cool patients by offering fresh air and cool drinks, opposing the standard treatment.

Question 42

Main Idea: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from Turkey to England as an effective smallpox prevention method.

Answer 42

Key Points: She observed the Turkish practice of inoculating healthy individuals with matter from smallpox pustules, making them immune. Inoculation led to the development of a mild form of the disease, conferring lifelong immunity. She had her daughter inoculated in England by Miatland, marking the first such procedure in the country.

Question 43

Main Idea: Princess Caroline of Wales conducted trials to gather more data on inoculation.

Answer 43

Key Points: She had six prisoners inoculated in exchange for their freedom, and they all survived, except one. She also used orphan children for trials, as they were seen as having ambiguous social status and were deemed expendable for medical experimentation.

Question 44

Main Idea: The practice of inoculation was introduced to America by a slave named Onesimus.

Answer 44

Key Points: Onesimus, owned by Cotton Mather, was a West African slave who had been inoculated against smallpox. Mather promoted the inoculation practice in Boston during the 1721 epidemic, despite backlash due to its African origins.

Question 45

Main Idea: Inoculation was a risky and dangerous procedure that posed ethical, medical, and religious challenges.

Answer 45

Key Points: The procedure could cause death, and inoculated individuals could spread the disease, creating local epidemics. Despite the lower mortality rate compared to contracting smallpox directly, inoculation was still a controversial method.

Question 46

Main Idea: James Jurin advocated for inoculation using statistical analysis to compare risks.

Answer 46

Key Points: Jurin, a physician and mathematician, used data to show that the risk of dying from inoculation was lower than dying from smallpox. His work marked a major contribution to quantifying risk in medicine and promoted evidence-based decisions.

Question 47

Main Idea: Edward Jenner discovered vaccination by using cowpox to prevent smallpox.

Answer 47

Key Points: Jenner noticed that milkmaids who contracted cowpox did not get smallpox. He successfully inoculated a boy with cowpox, proving that it conferred immunity to smallpox. This method became known as vaccination, derived from the Latin term "vacca" meaning cow.

Question 48

Main Idea: Some people opposed the new smallpox inoculation, leading to satirical attacks.

Answer 48

Key Points: A 1802 satirical broadside mocked the vaccination process, illustrating people growing cows in reference to the biblical golden calf. Anti-vaccination sentiment persisted even after Jenner’s success.

Question 49

Main Idea: John Simon advocated for compulsory smallpox vaccination as a public health measure.

Answer 49

Key Points: As the first medical officer of health in London (1848), Simon pushed for sanitary reforms and universal vaccination to combat smallpox. He used statistical evidence to support the need for mandatory vaccination, making it a key policy in preventing the disease.

Question 50

Main Idea: Smallpox vaccination became compulsory in many parts of the world during the 19th century.

Answer 50

Key Points: Several countries, including Bavaria (1807), Prussia (1815), and England (1853), introduced mandatory vaccination laws. The U.S. states, starting with Massachusetts, also enacted compulsory vaccination policies. The Jacobson v. Massachusetts case (1905) upheld compulsory vaccination, prioritizing public health over individual freedom.

Question 51

Main Idea: The smallpox eradication campaign, using freeze-dried vaccines and bifurcated needles, successfully eradicated the disease.

Answer 51

Key Points: The bifurcated needle allowed for a greater number of vaccinations with the same amount of vaccine. In 1977, smallpox became the first disease to be eradicated globally.

Question 52

Main Idea: Syphilis was introduced to Europe by Columbus’s crew and spread rapidly due to its high mortality.

Answer 52

Key Points: Known as the “French Pox” because the French army spread it across Europe. Syphilis was a sexually transmitted disease with distinct stages, devastating the European population due to lack of immunity.

Question 53

Main Idea: Treatments for syphilis in the early stages were often ineffective and involved harmful methods

Answer 53

Key Points: Treatments included vomiting-inducing substances, fumigation with mercury, and using guaiac wood decoctions. Physicians tried to find remedies, but no cure was available at this time.

Question 54

Main Idea: Dissections of syphilis victims were conducted to understand the disease.

Answer 54

Key Points: Doctors began dissecting bodies to learn about the internal effects of syphilis. Girolamo Fracastoro wrote about syphilis through the story of a shepherd, offering one of the first literary descriptions of the disease.

Question 55

Main Idea: There was much debate about whether syphilis and gonorrhea were the same disease.

Answer 55

Key Points: John Hunter famously experimented by infecting himself with gonorrhea, leading him to claim that both diseases were stages of the same condition. Benjamin Bell argued they were distinct diseases with different symptoms.

Question 56

Main Idea: Philippe Ricord developed a clearer understanding of syphilis, categorizing it into three active stages.

Answer 56

Key Points: Ricord identified primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of syphilis. He also argued that gonorrhea was not contagious and was a distinct disease.

Question 57

Main Idea: The bacterium Treponema pallidum was identified as the cause of syphilis in 1905 Key Points: Syphilis progresses through three stages, with the third stage affecting internal organs and leading to complications

Answer 57

Key Points: Syphilis progresses through three stages, with the third stage affecting internal organs and leading to serious complications. Early treatments were ineffective, but antibiotics like penicillin revolutionized syphilis treatment in the mid-20th century.

Question 58

Main Idea: Salvarsan, developed by Paul Ehrlich, was the first effective treatment for syphilis.

Answer 58

Key Points: Salvarsan was the first "magic bullet," targeting the syphilis bacterium. It was difficult to administer and toxic, later replaced by neosalvarsan.

Question 59

Main Idea: The Tuskegee Study was an unethical experiment that observed the effects of untreated syphilis on African American men.

Answer 59

Key Points: Conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service, the study did not inform participants of the nature of the experiment. Despite the availability of penicillin in the 1940s, participants were denied treatment and suffered from the disease.

Question 60

Main Idea: Investigating syphilis through dissection.

Answer 60

Key Points: Uncertainty whether syphilis was new to Europe. Niccolo Leoniceno (1497) used dissections of syphilis victims to study organ infections.

Question 60

Main Idea: Study of diseased states through autopsies/postmortems.

Answer 60

Originates from medieval times. First printed collection in the 1500s by Antonio Benivieni. Despite discoveries in the 16th and 17th centuries, therapies did not improve. Aimed to study disease, identify causes, and find therapies.

Question 61

Main Idea: Anatomy evolved with increased importance.

Answer 61

Key Points: Autopsies performed before Black Death in the 14th century. In the 16th century, anatomy became central to medicine. Shift from confirming Galen’s theories to discovering true bodily structures and causes of death.

Question 62

Main Idea: Introduced a chemical view of disease.

Answer 62

Physician at Leyden University. Found similarities between scrofula and consumption lesions. Developed chemical imbalance theory (acid-alkali). Despite his ideas, vinegar did not save him during the 1672 epidemic.

Question 63

Main Idea: Published a comprehensive work on autopsies.

Answer 63

Published "Sepulcretum" in two volumes. Collected hundreds of autopsy reports, setting forth histories of diseases. Established himself as a key source in pathological anatomy.

Question 64

Main Idea: Associated diseases with occupations.

Answer 64

Key Points: Pioneering work on occupational medicine. Linked diseases like silicosis and breast cancer to specific occupations. Examples: stone cutters and lung disease, nuns and breast cancer.

Question 65

Main Idea: Established correlations between symptoms and autopsy findings.

Answer 65

Key Points: Wrote De Sedibus (On the seats and causes of diseases investigated by anatomy). Drew connections between patient symptoms and autopsy reports. Based work on personal case histories and previous autopsies.

Question 66

Main Idea: Discovery of bone tuberculosis and historical significance.

Answer 66

Key Points: Potts studied patients with scrofulous (TB-related) bone conditions. His research led to identification of TB in ancient remains, including Egyptian mummies.

Question 66

Main Idea: Invented chest percussion for detecting internal conditions.

Answer 66

Key Points: Physician in Vienna, 18th century. Developed percussion technique to detect fluid in the chest. Modeled technique after tapping casks, confirmed findings with autopsies.

Question 66

Main Idea: Focused on diseases related to workers.

Answer 66

Key Points: London surgeon who studied Potts Palsy (spinal condition). Linked chimney sweep's scrotum cancer to soot exposure. Emphasized diseases in workers through environmental factors.