Exam 2 Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
static displays
A
are fixed and do not change (example: road signs)
2
Q
dynamic displays
A
change over time (example: speedometer)…more complex than simple; have many static features (ex: tick marks and digits on a speedometer)
3
Q
conspicuity
A
how well the display attract attention
4
Q
visibility
A
how well the display can be seen
5
Q
conspicuity and visibility
A
both are important for emergency vehicles
6
Q
best color for emergency vehicles
A
bright or lime-yellow; humans are sensitive to this color
7
Q
legibility
A
how easy it is to distinguish individual letters/symbols so that they can be recognized (influenced by size, font, pixel density for pictures, contrast between figures and their background)
8
Q
legibility distance
A
the distance at which a person can read the display (example: fluorescent street signs are more legible than non-fluorescent street signs of the same color in both day and night)…concerns the way text looks
9
Q
readability
A
concerns larger groups of characters (ex: words, sentences) in which comprehension of the material is a consideration…concerns content or meaning
10
Q
intelligibility
A
describes how the message in the display should be unambiguous and include information about consequences if ignored (ex: warning/danger signs)
11
Q
emphasis
A
should be put on important words (ex: “DANGER” in bold and all capitol letters)
12
Q
standardized
A
make signs more efficient; used on words symbols, colors, and locations to make signs universal (example: stop sign shape and words “STOP”)
13
Q
maintainability
A
displays should be constructed of appropriate material for the environment (ex: street signs need to withstand soil, mistreatment, and weather while maintaining conspicuity, legibility, and readability)
14
Q
alphanumeric displays (static display)
A
any display that uses words, letters, or numbers to convey information…character influences legibility; some fonts will be more legible than others
15
Q
overall density
A
the number of characters shown over the total area of the display
16
Q
local density
A
the density in the region immediately surrounding a character
17
Q
grouping
A
related to the Gestalt organizational principles
18
Q
layout complexity
A
extent to which the layout is predictable
19
Q
symbolic displays (static display)
A
used to convey information by using an image; typically objects that can easily be drawn; must be identifiable and understandable
20
Q
clear figure-ground distinction
A
helps eliminate ambiguity about the important elements of the display
21
Q
simple and symmetric symbols
A
will enhance readability
22
Q
closed, solid figures
A
are easier to interpret than more complex, open figures
23
Q
figure contours
A
should be smooth and continuous, unless discontinuity contributes to the information
24
Q
alphanumeric displays
A
pro: no new relationships between symbols and concepts need to be learned
con: interpreting the message takes more cognitive resources
25
symbolic displays
pro: people can interpret symbolic signs faster than alphanumeric signs; requires less cognitive resources
con: more susceptible to misinterpretation
26
coding dimensions
arbitrary features can be coded to objects or concepts; can be based on alphanumeric forms, non-alphanumeric forms, colors, sizes, flash rates, etc. (ex: road signs are categorized by colors)
27
absolute judgement
refers to the classification of a stimulus when several options are available (ex: deciding that a signal is "high" when the options are high, medium, or low
28
relative judgement
directly compare one to another
29
if the stimulus varies on a single dimension...
people can discriminate between 5 and 7 stimuli
30
color coding
a method that can be very effective...especially when the color is unique (ex: searching for apples in a basket of oranges vs. searching for tangerines in a basket of oranges)
31
shape coding
a useful method because people can distinguish between a very large number of geometric shapes (ex: road signs)
32
combination codes
used to maximize discrimination ability between displays; using more than one type of coding in a display
33
what is the best coding to use?
it depends on your situation
34
analog display (dynamic display)
have a continuous scale and a pointer
35
digital display (dynamic display)
present information in alphanumeric form
36
analog displays can be designed in 2 ways
1) moving pointer and a fixed scale (ex: speedometer)
| 2) fixed pointer and a moving scale (ex: compass)
37
digital displays:
only present the current value to the measure (ex: odometer)
38
display arrangements
are important when there are many dials or signal lights (consider perceptibility of information within each individual AND the overall organization)
39
frequency of use
the most frequently used and important displays are close to the line of sight under normal viewing conditions (ex: right in from of the user)
40
sequence of use
the order in which the displays are used
41
link analysis
a technique used to assist in the design of display configurations
42
link
is the connection between a pair of items indicating a certain relation between them
43
steps to doing a link analysis
1) PREPARE a diagram that show interactions between the display components
2) EXAMINE all relations between the displays and link values in terms of frequency of eye movements between displays
3) DEVELOP an initial link diagram in which the displays are rearranged so that the most frequently used displays are located in close proximity in the central visual field
4) REFINE the diagram we created in the first step to make the final layout
44
motion interpretability
how well a display represents the motion of an object (ex: GPS showing your car's motion along the path)
45
head-up displays (HDUs)
most commonly used in airplanes and video games
46
Helmet-mounted displays (HMDs)
similar to HUDs; provide critical information without requiring the user to move his or her head
47
3 types of warning signals
advisories, cautions, and warnings (alarms can be classified into these categories)
48
advisories
evokes general awareness of a marginal condition
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cautions
evokes immediate attention and requires a relatively rapid response
50
warnings
evokes immediate attention and requires an immediate response
51
warning signals and labels
display design should maximize the detectability of high-priority alerting signals
52
auditory displays
used to convey simple information (ex: emergency alarms and warning signals)
53
auditory icons
representational, everyday sounds with stereotypical meanings (ex: police car siren--> antivirus warning sound)
54
earcons
brief, recognizable sequence of tones to provide information (ex: receiving a text message)
55
warning and alarm signals
must be detectable within the normal operating environment
56
three-dimensional displays
can be made using auditory localization cues (like surround sound)
57
dichotic displays
are when each ear receives different auditory information (can be achieved with headphones)
58
speech displays
are used to transmit slightly more complicated information
59
tactile/haptic displays
rely on sense of touch; great in situations where visual or auditory information channels may be overloaded
60
tactile displays
refer to any displays where information is conveyed by sense of touch (useful in dark environments and for people with visual impairments)
61
haptic displays
usually refer to displays that apply force, vibration, or motion to the user (can be used for alerting signals; ex: a car seat that vibrates in direction of a crash threat)
62
double-barreled question
split questions into more than one part, idea or meaning; two questions in one (ex: "How useful do you find SurveyMonkey's Help Center Topics and the email support center?")
63
when writing questions for surveys:
be brief: keep questions short and ask one question at a time; avoid using double-barreled questions
be objective: pay attention to the neutrality of the words; avoid leading questions
be simple: sue language that is simple in both words and phrases; simple, direct and familiar to all respondents; avoid using complex words, technical terms, jargon, and phrases that are difficult to understand; needs to have good readability
be specific: ask precise questions; avoid things that are too general or undefined
64
social desirability bias
respondents tend to give answers they believe will make them look better in the eye of others or not disappoint the evaluator
65
question types
range from open-ended to closed-ended, combining
66
open-ended
comments to essays; sometimes called "free response" or "nonstructured" because they allow the respondents to answer in their own words; good for memory recall, opinions, or additional comments that weren't addressed in other questions
67
closed-ended
yes/no, multiple choice, rating scale; questions with pre-designed answers with a small or large set of potential choices
68
drawbacks to open-ended questions
sometimes respondents may find it difficult to express their feelings; don't take the time or effort (have a larger skip rate); analyzing can be time consuming and difficult
69
types of closed-ended questions:
dichotomous and multichotomous, single response (choose one) or multiple response (choose all that apply)
70
dichotomous
(two category) respondent can choose one of the only two fixed answer choices
71
multichotomous
(multiple-category) respondent can choose one of many fixed answer choices
72
combined closed and open
multiple choice with "other" answer that asks respondent to explain further if they choose that option
73
likert-type scale
scale in which respondents rate their level of agreement or satisfaction; usually a 5-point or 7-point scale...fewer may make data analysis more challenging
74
semantic differential scales
involves presenting pairs of bipolar, or opposite, adjectives at either end of a series of scales (ex: weak......strong)
75
continuous response types
generally give you better data; easy to implement on computerized surveys
76
prototype
a limited representation of a design that allows users to interact with it and to explore its suitability; an envisioned product like a scale model of a building or bridge, video simulation of a task, paper-based outline of a screen, etc.; helps to gain experience of using it in a realistic setting
77
low fidelity prototyping
one that does not look very much like the final product; useful because they tend to be simple, cheap and quick to produce
78
storyboarding
consists of a series of sketches or screenshots showing how a user might progress through a task using the product under development
79
high fidelity prototyping
looks a lot more like the finished product; useful for selling ideas to people and for testing out technical issues
80
horizontal prototyping
providing a wide range of functions but with little detail (ex: breadth)
81
vertical prototyping
providing a lot of detail for only a few functions (ex: depth)
82
user manuals
first impressions, instructions, designing individual pages
83
task analysis techniques:
used to understand and represent human and system performance in a particular task or scenario
84
hierarchical task analysis (HTA)
involves breaking down the task under analysis into a hierarchy of goals, operations and plans
85
HTA goals:
the UNOBSERVABLE task goals associated with the task in question
86
HTA operations:
the OBSERVABLE behaviors or activities that the operator has to perform in order to accomplish the goal of the task in question (all observable steps)
87
HTA plans:
the UNOBSERVABLE decisions and planning made on behalf of the operator (critical during a lot of tasks)
88
HTA steps
1) determine the overall goal of the task: should be specified at the top of the hierarchy
2) determine task sub-goals: break the overall goal down into four or five meaningful sub-goals
3) sub-goal decomposition: sub-goals from step 2 should be broken down into further sub-goals and operations, according to the task
4) plans analysis: once all of the sub-goals have been fully described, the plans need to be added
89
cognitive task analysis (CTA)
breaks down the components of the task in terms of the cognitive ability required during each step; the bulk of the data collection occurs via in-depth interviews with subject matter experts
90
workload
refers to the total amount of work or effort that a person, or group of people, is to perform within a time limit
91
mental workload
the amount of mental effort necessary to perform a task within a time limit
92
empirical techniques
used to measure and assess workload directly in a system or simulated system
93
analytical techniques
used to predict workload demands early in the system development process
94
four major types of empirical techniques
primary task, secondary task, physiological (or psychophysiological), and subjective
95
primary task measures
evaluate the mental workload requirements of a task by directly examining performance of the user or of the overall system
96
secondary task measures
dual-task performance where the user is required to perform a secondary task in addition to a primary task; workload can be assessed by manipulating the primary or secondary task difficulty and observing changes in performance of the other task
97
loading task paradigm
requires users to maintain performance on the secondary task even if performance on the primary task suffers
98
subsidiary task paradigm
requires users to maintain performance on the primary task at the expense of the secondary task
99
commonly used secondary tasks are:
reaction time, choice reaction time, monitoring for the occurrence of a stimulus, and mental arithmetic
100
psychophysiological measures
can use instead of using behavior observations; it can provide online measurement of the dynamic changed in workload as an operator is engaged in the task, without requiring a second task; can be used to measure arousal in users
101
pupillometry
a technique to measure arousal by measuring the pupil diameter
102
heart rate
generally, increased heart rate=increased mental workload
103
subjective assessment techniques
evaluate workload by obtaining users' judgements about their tasks (typically ask users to rate overall mental workload or several components of workload
104
four most common subjective workload measures
1) cooper-harper scale
2) subjective workload assessment technique (SWAT)
3) NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX)
4) workload profile (WP)
105
cooper-harper scale
used research on piloting aircraft to develop this mental workload measure
106
subjective workload assessment technique (SWAT)
initially designed for use with a variety of systems and tasks; requires users to judge which tasks have higher workload than others using a card-sorting procedure
107
SWAT workload is divided into 3 subcategories:
1) time load: the extent to which tasks must be performed within a limited amount of time
2) mental effort load: inherent attentional demands of a task
3) stress load: user variables that contribute to anxiety level
108
NASA task load index (NASA-LTX)
most widely used; an overall measure of workload can be obtained by calculating a weighting mean
109
NASA-LTX's 6 scales for users to rate workload:
1) mental demand
2) physical demand
3) temporal demand
4) performance
5) effort
6) frustration level
110
workload profile (WP)
uses dimensions based on Wickens' multiple-resource model: processing stage (perceptual/central or response selection/execution), processing code (spatial or verbal), input modality (visual or auditory), output modality (manual output or speech)
111
two main issues with subjective measurements and their interpretation
1) the workload ratings obtained are sensitive only to the range of conditions to which the users are exposed
2) subjective estimates of workload can be different from psychophysiological or performance measures
112
analytical techniques
do not require a user to interact with a system or simulator of an established system (pp ch. 10 slide 30)
113
comparison technique
uses workload data from a predecessor system to estimate the workload for a system under development
114
expert opinion
is one of the easiest and most extensively employed analytic techniques
115
mathematical models
1960s and 70s models; replaced by computerized task analysis and simulations
116
task analysis
decomposes the overall system goal into segments and user tasks, and ultimately into elemental task requirements
117
simulation model
is conducted with a computerized version of reality
118
Stevens' Law
the relationship between physical intensity and psychological magnitude (perceived magnitude)
119
attention
our ability to attend to stimuli is limited...how we direct attention will determine how well we perceive, remember, and act on information
120
selective attention
determines our ability to focus on certain sources of information and ignore others...a component of many tasks (ex: when reading a book, you ignore sounds from your environment)
121
divided attention
determines our ability to do more than one thing at once (ex:drive while talking)
122
mental effort
selective and divided attention vary by the amount of mental effort they require...cognitive demands of a user's duties
123
"attention demanding"
if the task requires considerable mental effort
124
executive control
performance depends on the type of consecutive control...strategies a person adopts to control the flow of information and task performance
125
models of attention
many models...each has contributed a different aspect to our understanding of "attention"
126
bottleneck models
specify a particular stage in the information processing sequence where the amount of information we can attend to is limited
127
early selection
closer to perception
128
late selection
closer to response
129
early selection and late selection
refer to where the bottleneck is placed in the information processing sequence
130
resource models
view attention as a limited-capacity resource that can be allocated to one or more tasks, rather than as a fixed bottleneck
131
single resource
is just one
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multiple resource
is two or more
133
executive control models
models that do not hypothesize any capacity limitations
134
filter theory
early selection model in which stimuli enter a central processing channel one at a time to be identified..supported by research of "selective attention" (ex: cocktail party phenomenon)
135
filter-attenuation model
claims an early filter serves only to attenuate the signal of an unattended message rather than to block it entirely
136
late-selection model
describes how all information comes into the processing sequence but if they are not important, they decay rapidly
137
load theory
a hybrid early and late-selection theory...whether selection is early or late will depend on whether the perceptual load is high or low
138
resource models
postulate that attentional limitations arise because a limited capacity of resources are available for mental activity
139
unitary-resource models
hypothesize attention is a limited-capacity resource that can be applied to a variety of processes and tasks
140
dual-task procedures
measures the performance when attempting to do a primary and secondary task simultaneously
141
malleable attentional resources
performance suffers when there is mental overload and the task is too easy (ex: when tasks are automized, we pay less attention to them)
142
multiple-resource theory
states that instead of one resource of attention, there are several distinct cognitive subsystems and each have their own limited pool of resources
143
Executive-Process Interactive Control (EPIC)
the theory states that decrements in multiple-task performance are due to the strategies that people adopt to perform different tasks in different manners
144
selective listening
used to present a target message with a distractor message to determine what characteristics of the distractor interfere with the target message by masking the target or confusing the listener
145
covert orienting
suggests that an observer should be able to selectively attend to a location in the visual field that is different from his/her fixation point
146
endogenous orienting
when you shift your attention voluntarily
147
exogenous orienting
an involuntary shift of attention (this can happen even when the observer does not move his/her eyes)
148
inhibition of return
once attention has shifted away from an exogenously cued location there is a tendency to avoid returning it to that same location
149
divided attention
tasks require a person to attend to several sources of information simultaneously
150
prioritizing
can help a user divide his/her attention between sources
151
Performance-operating characteristic (POC)
sometimes called an attentional operating characteristic...baseline performance for each task when performed by itself is compared to when the tasks are combined
152
independence point
this is a hypothetical point where the two tasks can be performed together as efficiently as they are performed alone
153
performance efficiency
the distance between the POC curve and the independence point
154
cost of concurrence
the difference between performance for one task alone and dual-task performance
155
Yerkes-Dodson Law
states performance is an inverted U-shaped function of arousal level, with the best performance occurring at a higher arousal for simple tasks than for complex tasks
156
perceptual narrowing
the restriction of attention that occurs under high arousal
157
vigilance decrement
a decrease in vigilance when a task is performed for an extended period of time
158
vigilance
sustained attention
159
vigilance task
one in which the user is expected to monitor multiple displays simultaneously while having nothing to do for long periods of time between events
160
Normative (one way of how people reason & make decision)
choices a rational person males under ideal circumstances (our actual decisions often deviate from this)
161
descriptive (one way of how people reason & make decisions)
choices a typical person makes under typical circumstances
