Exam 2 Flashcards
(182 cards)
1
Q
Morphological cellular adaptations to injury (reversible)
A
Metaplasia Intracellular accumulations Atrophy Hypertrophy Hyperplasia
2
Q
Mechanisms of atrophy
A
Ubiquitin- Proteasome : ubiquitin tags protein to be chopped up.
Autophagy: Autophagosome eats organelles
3
Q
Sweeny
A
Atrophy of shoulder muscle due to nerve damage that supplies the shoulder/scapula
4
Q
Hypertrophy
A
individual cells enlarging which causes the overall tissue to enlarge
5
Q
Hyperplasia
A
Increase in the number of cells
6
Q
Metaplasia
A
Change in the phenotype of a cell. Ex: cell shape round to square
Reprogramming of stem cell
7
Q
Fatty Change
A
Accumulation of Triglycerides, ex fatty liver which is reversible,
not a normal function of hepatocytes
8
Q
Dystrophic calcification
A
local deposition of calcium in injured /dying/dead tissue and cells
9
Q
Metastatic calcification
A
Systemic deposition of calcium in connective tissue and basement membrane where there is an excess of calcium and phosphate (hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia)
Ex.: kidney disease, vit D toxicosis
mineralization of cells
10
Q
Extracellular matrix
A
Collagen, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and elastin
secreted by fibroblast
11
Q
loose (areolar) connective tissue
A
supports epithelia, organs and the gut (mucosa)
12
Q
Dense irregular
A
Made mostly of fibers than cells, collagen 1 and proteoglycans, random arrangement, forms capsules around organs
13
Q
Dense regular
A
collagen bundles and elastin
Tendon: muscle to bone
Ligament: bone to bone
14
Q
Collagen Type 1
A
major fibrillar collagen provides strength
bone, skin, ligament, tendon
15
Q
Collagen Type 2
A
cartilage collagen, smaller than type 1
16
Q
Collagen type 3
A
Reticular fibers, supportive frame work
17
Q
Collagen Type 4
A
major collagen in basal lamina, basket-like formation
18
Q
Osteoblast
A
bone cell
19
Q
Chondrocyte
A
Cartilage cell
20
Q
myocyte
A
Muscle cell
21
Q
Adipocyte
A
Fat cell
22
Q
Big 6
A
Na+/K+ ATPase, Ca2+ ATPase, Actinomysin ATPase, Protein Turnover, Gluconeogenesis, Urea Synthesis
23
Q
Eccymosis
A
hemorrhage greater than a centimeter
24
Q
Hematemesis
A
Vomiting blood
25
Hematuria
blood in urine
26
Hematochezia
fresh blood in feces
27
Melena
black tarry blood in feces
28
Epistaxis
blood coming from the nose
29
Blood clot
A semi-solidfied mass (coagulum) of blood formed outside the cardiovascular system
30
Hematoma
localized collection of blood, usually clotted in a tissue
31
petechia
pinpoint hemorrhages
32
Hemostasis
Stopping of hemorrhage (hemostatic plug)
33
Thrombosis
Solid mass from blood components that is persistent within the cardiovascular system of a living animal which partially/completely obstructs blood flow
34
Pale thrombi
Arterial thrombi
35
Red thrombi
Venous thrombi, gelatinous, wet looking
36
Thrombus
Composed mainly of fibrin, platelets, entrapped blood cells, contains lines of zahn
37
Vegetative valvular endocarditis
thrombus in the heart due to bacterial infection
38
Resolution of thrombus
Lysis of thrombus
39
Embolization
chunks of the thrombus break off
40
Organization
Scar down, blood vessels develop inside, healing response
41
Occlusion
blocks the blood vessel
42
Recanalization
blood vessels develop,blood can partially flow through the system
43
Ischemia
reduced blood flow
44
Infarcts
necrosis resulting from arterial or venous occlusion (not only from thrombus, includes bone or fat)
45
White infarct
arterial occlusion
46
Red infarct
Venous occlusion
| and arterial occlusion where there is tissues with collateral circulation
47
Rubor
Redness, vasodilation, prostaglandin, nitric oxide
48
Tumor
Swelling, vascular permeability, histamine, serotonin, Bradykinin, Leukotrienes etc
49
Calor
Heat, vasodilation and fever, PGE2, Cytokines : IL-1,6, TNF
50
Dolor
Pain, mediators stimulate nerve endings, Bradykinin PGE
51
Major basic protein
toxic to parasites, stimulates mast cell secretion, and release of lysosomal enzymes and superoxide from neutrophils, activates platelets
52
Muscle Types
Smooth, Skeletal, Cardiac
53
Myofibril
Contractile element of a muscle fiber, makes up a bulk of the cytoplasm
54
Muscle fiber
large multinucleated cell located peripherally
55
sarcolemma
Plasma membrane of the muscle cell
56
endomysium
envelopes each single muscle cell
57
perimysium
Surrounds each fascicle
58
Fascicle
several muscle fibers
59
epimysium
Surrounds the entire muscle formed by groups of fascicles
60
Dark Bands
Myosin Filaments, bisected by M line, do not change in size
61
Light Bands
Portion of the actin filament where it does not overlap from the myosin filament. Decreases in size during contraction. Bisected by the Z disc
62
Sarcomere
Length of Z disk to Z disk
63
Central Nervous System
Brain, Spinal cord, Neural parts of eye
| Composed of Neurons and Glia
64
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral ganglia, Nerves, Nerve endings
| Composed of Satellite cells, Schwann cells and neurons
65
Satellite cell
multipotent cell, role in muscle regeneration after injury
66
Skeletal
multinucleate, peripheral nuclei, striated, triads, t-tubule
67
Cardiac Muscle
Single central nucleus, striated, intercalated disk, diads, branched cylinders, t-tubules
68
Desmosomes
intermediate filaments which mechanically link cardiac muscle cells
69
Gap Junction
Intercellular channels which allow communication of signalling molecules directly between adjacent cells, communicate action potentials
70
Sinoatrial node
pacemaker cells, generate action potentials
71
Purkunje fibers
impulse conducting fibers, modified cardiac myofibers, looks like cotton candy
72
Smooth muscle
Spindle shaped, one central nucleus, arranged in single or multiple layers found in walls of the gut, blood vessels etc., contains caveolae (similar to t-tubule), dense bodies, no striationsneurons make multiple points of contact
73
Dense Bodies
structure associated with cytoplasmic and plasma membrane where actin and intermediate filaments insert
74
T-Tubule
System in cardiac and skeletal muscle which transmits depolarization signals to SR
75
Tunica Intima
Endothelium, Subendothelial layer, internal elastic lamina
76
Tunica Media
Smooth muscle which produces elastin, reticular, and collagen fibers, external elastic lamina
77
Tunica Adventitia
Loose connective tissue, blood vessels (vaso vasorum), lymphatics, and nerves (Nervi Vasorum)
78
Elastic/ Conducting Arteries
Largest arteris (ex: aorta), contains lots of elastic fibers and collagen in addition to smooth muscle, fenestrae (window capillaries)
79
Arterioles
Similar structure to arteries but have less than 4 layers of smooth muscle, thin/ no tunica adventitia, and an endothelial lining
80
Capillaries
Single cell to passes through,, sometimes endothelial cell nucleus's are not visible
81
Capillary bed
exchange of gases and solutes between blood and tissue
82
arteriovenous shunt
Allows blood to bypass the capillary bed
83
Precapillary sphincters
Regulate the blood flow across the capillary bed by controlling constriction of the capillary, made of smooth muscle
84
Arterial portal system
Afferent arteriol -> Capillary network -> Efferent arteriole -> Capillary (vasa recta- surrounds the nephrons) -> Venule, occurs in the kidney
85
Venous Portal system
Arteriole -> Capillary -> Vein -> Capillary/Sinusoid (surounds hepatocytes) -> vein, occurs in the liver
86
Continuous capillary
Endothelial cells have a continuous cytoplasm using transcytosis (transport vesicles) to move things around
87
Fenestrated Capillary
Continuous basal lamina, transport via gradient through filtration
88
Discontinuous Capillary
Contains gaps which cells can fit through , discontinuous basal lamina, allows large molecules to pass through
89
Vein contraction
Contain very little smooth muscle so they use valves formed by the tunica intima to control blood flow and prevent back flow
90
Lymphatic capillaries
Filled with lymph and proteins that stain pink, irregular outline, spaced endothelial cell
91
Roles of the endothelial cell
Modulates smooth muscle activity, control vascular cell growth, trigger blod coagualtion, and regulate traffic of inflammatory cells
92
Angiogenesis
Endothelial cells undergo mitosis and a blood vessel from a preexisting vessel
93
Functions of the gut mucosa
Absorptive and Barrier function
94
Mucosa
Epithelium, lamina propria (contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, loose connective tissue and immune cells) and muscularis mucosa.
95
Submucosa
loose connective tissue, nerve plexus, larger blood vessels, submucosal glands
96
Circular muscle
inner muscle layer. O
97
Longitudinal Muscle
Outer muscle layer . =
98
lamina propria
Lies beneath the layer of epithelium, made of loose connective tissue, or dense irregular con. tissue, acts as a mucous membrane
99
mucosal Glands
Crypts, invagination of epithelial layer, ex: stomach, SI and colon
100
Crypt
Glands
101
Villus
Folded epithelium which form projections into the lumen of the gut to increase surface area
102
Enterocytes
absorb and secrete
103
Goblet cells
create mucin
104
Endocrine cells
specialized chemo-sensing cells that secrete peptide hromones
105
Paneth cells
Secrete antimicrobial peptides
106
Mucin
Produced by epithelial tissue, heavily glycosylated proteins, act as a fed to gut bacteria, provides lubrication
107
Transcellular
transporting through the cell from lumen to lamina propria, Enterocytes have multiple ways of transporting macromolecules through
108
Paracellular
Apical (tight) junction pathways complexes,principle determinant of permeability
109
Epithelial barrier
Barrier between the inside and outside world, the gut is the largest mucosal surface, adaptable and regulated by external stimuli, nutrients, pathogens, etc.
110
Crypt-villus axis
Stem cells (located at the bottom of the cryptdifferentiate as they move up into the villi), Paneth cells, putative stem cells, Progenitor cells, goblets, enterocytes, entero-endocrine cells
111
Layers of the Gut
Mucosa, Submucosa, Tunica muscularis, Serosa
112
Types of Glands
Accessory glands (exocrine), Submucosal gland (tubuloacinar structures with main part of gland in the submucosaand duct leading to gut lumen), and mucosal glands
113
Inflammation
Vascular and Cellular response to injury, physiological process/response to tissue injury
114
Edema
Leakage of fluid into the vascular space
115
Effusion
Leakage of fluid into an empty space
116
Chronic Inflammation
days to years, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells,collagen and fibrosis, vascular shunting, neovascularization, tissue remodeling
117
Acute inflammation
minutes to 48 hours, neutrophils, edema, fibrin, permeability, vasodilation
118
Systemic effects of inflammation
Fever, inflammatory cells,changes in nervous system, blood flow, oxygen saturation, acute phase proteins (fibrin, cytokines) etc...
119
Hyperemia
Active, increase in blood flow, erythema reddening of tissue due to engorgement of blood
120
Congestion
Passive, Slowing of blood flow
121
Local Mediators
Produced locally and act over short distances, tightly regulated, short lived, control inflammation, tissue damage, immune responses, differentiation, proliferation
122
Cell derived mediators
Produced at the site of inflammation
123
Plasma protein derived mediators
Circulating inactive precursors and activated at sites of inflammation
124
Eicosanoids
Lipid mediators, Leukotrienes, Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, Prostacyclins, cause vasodilation, vasoconstriction, permeability, generate heat, derived from arachidonic acid
125
Two pathways of arachidonic acid
Cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase
126
Cyclooxygenase
Generate vasodilation, increased vascular permeability (PGD), also causes vasoconstriction (Thromboxane)
127
5-Lipoxygenase
Bronchospasm increased vascular permeability (Leukotriene), inhibit neutrophil adhesion and chemotaxis (Lipoxin)
128
Platelet activating factor
platelet aggregation, inflammation, anaphylaxis
129
Vasoactive amines
Histamine and serotonin, preformed, vasodilation, contraction of smooth muscle, produced from mast cells, platelets, and basophils
130
Nitric oxide
Free radical, cause injury to pathogen but also causes tissue damage, vasodilation and smooth muscle relaxation
131
Kinins
Derived from Factor 12 Hageman factor, during injury it activvates kallikrein wich affects the liver
132
Bradykinin
pain erlated pathways, feedback pathway which liberates arachidonic acid to increase inflammatory response
133
Complement
C3b is formed from C3a and is important in destruction of microbes by leukocytes, phagocytosis, and lysis of microbe
134
Cytokines
Released by cells of immune system, play a critical role in inflammatory process, secreted by macrophages and dendritic cells
135
Growth factors
Regulate cellular differentiation and proliferation via paracrine and autocrine mechaisms, important in tissue repair and regeneration
136
Tissue damage caused by which cells
Neutrophil, macrophage, lysosomal enzymes, nitric oxide
137
Increase in permeability due to
Endothelial contraction, direct injury, Leukocyte dependent injury, transcytosis, new blood vessel formation
138
Inflammatory cells found in the tissue
Mast cells, Fibroblast, and macrophages
139
Inflammatory cells, found in circulation
Monocyte, Eosinophils, Basophils, platelets, leukocyte
140
Mast Cells
Located in tissue, mature when activated by c-kit/KIT, releases histamines, proteases, proteoglycans, cytokines and eicosanoids
141
Mast cell actions
induces smooth muscle contraction, vasodilation of small blood vessels, increase vascular permeability etc.
142
Eosinophils
Derived from bone marrow, circulate the bloodstream for 5-24 hrs, under tight control, contain receptors (IgE, IgG, IgA)
143
Platelets as inflammatory cells
phagocytic (bind to things in circulation), have granules, interact with and kill pathogens,contain lots of receptors
144
Neutrophils
Recognition (P- and E- selectin), margination (pavementing/sticking), emigration, chemotaxis and kill bacteria (phagocytosis), myeloperoxidase
145
Phagocytosis
Ingestion of a microbe or particulate material into a vacuole, Recognition, ingestion, Degradation
146
Macrophage
Resident of tissue, Chemotaxis, phagocytosis, Mediate systemic effects
147
Classification of Chronic inflammation
Granulomas (focal accumulation of macrophages, granulomatous (diffuse), Lymphocytic, chronic neutrophils
148
Classification of Lesions
Distribution, Duration, exudate, organ involved,
149
Pneumonia
lung infection, cranioventral
150
Severity
Marked, severe, moderate, mild, minimal
151
Distribution
Diffuse, Focal Multifocal, Coalescing, etc. clues to pathogenesis
152
Diffuse
All or most of an organ is uniformly involved
153
Focal
one discrete inflamed area
154
Multifocal
Multiple discrete inflamed areas
155
Locally extensive
one lesion that involves a significant portion but not all of the organ
156
Coalescing
regions of different regions growing together
157
Masses are
Hyperplasia, Neoplasia, or inflammation
158
Peracute
rapid onset
159
Subacute
Prior to obvious indicators of chronicity
160
Exudate
Serous, Supprative, purulent, mucopurulent, fibrinous, contains neutrophils
161
Catarrhal, Mucopurulant
Located on mucosal surfaces, Entrap bacteria, exudates contain enzymes, antibodies, stimulate cilia movement
162
Necrotic, Necrotizing, Ulcerative
Severe injury, pale and weak tissue, dead tissue removed (ulcer)
163
Bipolar Neuron
Axon located on either side of the neuron, Sensory structure
164
Pseudounipolar neuron
Single axon divides a short distance from the cell body. Peripheral branch carries information from the periphery. Central branch ends in the spinal cord.
165
Multipolar neuron
Many dendrities and a single long axon emerge from the cell body. Pyramidal cell and purkunje cell
166
Myelin
produced by schwann cells, lipid rich fluid, wraps around axon
167
Node of Ranvier
Space between the myelin sheath
168
Axonal transport
Golgi vesicles bind to kinesin to transport down the axon, released at the neurotransmitter. The vesicle is recycled by binding to dynein
169
Glial cells
Support cells of the CNS: Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Microglia, PNS: Schwann cells
170
Blood Barrier
Astrocytes wrap around capillaries to form the blood brain barrier
171
Astrocytes
maintain the blood brain barrier, have a close association with the pia mater (inner protection of the brain)
172
Myelination
The wrapping around an axon, CNS - oligodendrocytes, PNS - Schwann cells
173
CSF, Cerebrospinal Fluid
Clear, colorless fluid, CNS- protection, nourishment, produced by the choroid plexus, circulated in the subarachnoid space, absorbed in the venous sinuses, arachnoid villi
174
Meninges
Protection of the brain, Dura - outer most layer adjacent to the skull, Pia - very thin layer of connective tissue which lays on the outer surfaceof the brain, Arachnoid - prevents CSF from coming into contact with extracellular space
175
Epineurium
Encloses the entire cell
176
Dorsal root ganglion
Sensory ganglion are surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, neurons tend to be clustered and are pseudounipolar
177
Sympathetic ganglia
recieves axon from presynaptic cell whose neurons are within the CNS, small, multipolar, unmyelinated axons
178
Ependymal epithelium
cuboidal cell linked by desmosomes, contain apical microvilli and cillia and abundant mitochondria
179
Tanycytes
Specialized enedymal cells found in the therd ventricle, linked by tight junctions
180
Perineurium
Encloses each fasicle and consists of concentric layers of connective tissue
181
Endoneurium
Surrounds individual nerve fibers
182
endoneurial capillaries
endothelial cells linked by tight junctions to contribute to the blood brain barrier
