Exam 2

Question 1

Developmental Patterns (Prenatal)-

Answer 1

Production: The Neural Tube
Migration: Movement Within the Neural Tube
Aggregation: Gathering of neurons
Differentiation: distinctions in functions
Connections: making synapses
Formation: creation of brain region
Growth: further dev. Of regions

Question 2

Developmental Patterns (Postnatal)-

Answer 2

Quadrillions of connections within 2 years.
Growth of axons
Growth cone: looks for particular proteins
Growth of dendrites
Transient Exuberance– The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant’s brain during the first two years of life.
Synaptogenesis- Formation of synapses
from 2,500 neuron connections at birth to 15,000 at six months. This decreases as we age due to neural pruning
Highest rate: first 6-8 years (6-10 highest density), plateaus, and then decreases
Motor cortex: 2 months old
Visual cortex: 3 months old
Prefrontal Cortex: 6 months old
Hippocampus: 8 months old
Myelination– Growth of myelin sheath, especially in the cortex
Increased Lateralization and Specialization of the cortex

Question 3

left hemisphere

Answer 3

reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic reasoning, logic, and understanding

Question 4

Right hemisphere

Answer 4

Perceiving and expressing emotion, recognizing faces, copying drawings, spatial relations, intuition, recognizing melodies.
spatial relations: being able to imagine objects in space–video games, etc.

Question 5

Pruning

Answer 5

unused connections in brain die – brain then can develop in accordance with sociocultural context. stimulation increases strength of connection.

timing: greatest amount of pruning appears to be between 10 and 18 years
result: Simpler structure, more efficient, quicker response time

Question 6

neural plasticity

Answer 6

brain capacity for modification and reorganization
method 1: Write itself with new synapses: if neurons destroyed- nearby neurons may make new connections to replace old ones
method 2: Select new uses for pre-wired circuits: area of brain damaged other areas may reorganize and take over functions
timing: decreases over time; especially after age 11

Question 7

Abuse:

Answer 7

Physical injury to the brain: shaking or dropping infant- brain trauma;
shaken baby syndrome-motion that ruptures blood vessels in brain and breaks neural connections death or life long intellectual impairments are consequences
Overproduction of stress hormone cortisol
May inhibit synaptogenesis
May result in smaller hippocampus (involved in memory)
-May increase activity of locus coeruleus (involved in vigilance and arousal)

Question 8

Neglect:

Answer 8

infants of depressed mothers.
reduced activity in the left frontal lobe- related to positive emotions
key factor: emotional tone of exchanges between mother and infant.

Question 9

Experience -dependant brain functions

Answer 9

brain functions depend on particular variable experiences and therefore may or may not develop in particular infant

Question 10

Experience-Expectant brain functions

Answer 10

Brain functions require certain basic common experiences (which an infant can be expected to have) in order to develop normally
EX: Every baby needs at least one steady caregiver (experience-expectant): Without that stability the brain might not develop normal emotional responses.

Question 11

Motor skills:

Answer 11

learned abilities to move some part of the body (any movement ability)

Question 12

Gross motor skills:

Answer 12

physical abilities involving large body movements 
ex: jumping and walking 
Dynamic system of motor skills:
muscle strength
brain maturation
practice

Question 13

Fine motor skills:

Answer 13

physical abilities involving small body movements

ex: moving hands and fingers (picking up a coin)

Question 14

motor skills sequence

Answer 14

sensation-perception-cognition

Question 15

Factors influencing growth`

Answer 15

experience, time, and motivation

Question 16

sensory capacities

Answer 16

hearing, taste, smell, touch, temperature, pain, vision

Question 17

hearing

Answer 17

Discriminates sounds based on loudness, duration, direction, and frequency
prefer mother’s voice to other women
sensitive to phonemes, even better than adults

Question 18

taste and smell

Answer 18

prefer sweet over sour. , recognize mother by smell (if breast fed)

Question 19

touch, temperature, and pain:

Answer 19

Touch enhances development and allows exploration of environment. Babies can be comforted by touch. Some experiences that are painful for adults (circumcision, setting of a broken bone) are much less so to newborns.

Question 20

vision:

Answer 20

Least well developed sense. can see patterns, colors, and motion, can see as well as adults by 12 months. Depth perception demonstrated at 3 months old.

Question 21

Perceptual capacity

Answer 21

interpretation of what is sensed
methods used to test it:
- The preference (attention) method: discriminate between stimuli
- The Habituation method: familiarity leads to a lack of response
Dishabituation: response to new stimuli
- The method of evoked potentials: present stimulus & record brain waves (dif stimuli produce dif brain Wave patterns )
- The high-amplitude sucking method: rate of sucking on a pacifier controls presentation of a stimuli, shows preference and discrimination
-has to do with infants responsiveness to sound and sucking

Question 22

immunization:

Answer 22

Causes antibodies to defend against attack by a particular disease

Question 23

breast is best:

Answer 23

provides antibodies and decreases allergies. essential nutrients for the brain and body
colostrum: a thick, high-calorie fluid secreted by the mother’s breast at birth. After 3 days, the breast produces milk

Question 24

malnutrition:

Answer 24

person doesn’t consume sufficient food of any kind
results→ stunting growth and wasting (severely underweight)
Head-sparing: A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition
Stunting- The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition.
Wasting- The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition.
Chronically malnourished infants and children suffer in three additional ways:
Their brain may not develop normally.
Malnourished children have no body reserves to protect them against common disease.
Some diseases result directly from malnutrition

Question 25

Injury prevention (3 levels)

Answer 25

primary prevention: Overall situation is structured to make harm less likely (reduces everyone's chance of injury) ex. Sidewalks, speed bumps secondary prevention Averting harm in high-risk individuals ex. school crossing guards avert harm from kids tertiary prevention: After an injury occurs (limiting damage) ex. law against hit and runs

Question 26

Assumptions

Answer 26

individual is active, curious, and inventive | the factors that influence development (below) are related to cognitive growth

Question 27

Intelligence:

Answer 27

a basic life function that helps the organism to adapt to its environment

Question 28

Factors that influence development

Answer 28

maturation of N.S physical experience social interaction

Question 29

Nature of development-

Answer 29

cognitive development changes over life span in stages (discontinuous fashion) sensorimotor period: 0 - 2 Way infants think by using senses and motor skills, reflexes (I see, I act) Sensory=feeling; motor=acting preoperations: 2-7 (Transitional Stage) (Before logical thinking→ operations = logical thinking). Basic language the ability to picture words and images in your head and use them to problem solve concrete operations: 7-12 (Simple here and now logic (ex. math) thinking logically only concrete thoughts formal operations: 12+ (Formal/Abstract Logic) hypothetical thought postformal operations: 18+?

Question 30

Research Methods

Answer 30

observations of natural behavior clinical (interview) method: Interview with child about some problem or task Child's responses to each question or problem determines what the interviewer asks next. questions not always standardized across children

Question 31

Dimensions of Cognition

Answer 31

content, structure (schema), & function 1) content: Current thoughts, actions. What is occupying your thoughts right now 2) structure (schema): an organized pattern of thought or action that one constructs to interpret some aspect of one’s experience (strategy or a concept) Behavioral: action. Ex: While we drive we don’t have to think about every move we make, we just drive. Cognitive (Mental Representation): images, words. All the words and definitions of words in our heads. Operational: logical connections among schema. Logical sequence you follow to do something. EX: When we get on our computers we just know the logical sequence of how to get on the web and log on to Facebook. We don’t have to think about every little step 3) function: (organization, adaptation) Organization: an inborn tendency to combine and integrate schema into coherent systems or bodies of knowledge Adaptation: an inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment

Question 32

Organization & Adaptation (Assimilation & Accommodation)

Answer 32

assimilation (organize): Process of making new information fit existing schema (knowledge structures) Ex. Toddler sees a lion and assumes it is a kitty accommodation (adapt): Process of developing new schema or modifying old schema in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences Ex. Toddler sees a lion and identifies it as a lion not a kitty

Question 33

Characteristics of sensorimotor substages

Answer 33

1) primary circular reaction: Concentration is on the baby’s own body. baby’s reaction - feels good (keep sucking)-1-4 months 2) secondary circular reaction: Trying to make interesting things last. The infant’s responses to object s and people. repeated reaction from object to person- interesting object (keep shaking) 4-12 months 3) tertiary circular reaction: Involves experimentation and internal problem solving. The most creative with action and then with ideas. novel reaction from object to person- fascinating reaction (what else can i do) 12-24 months, “little scientist”

Question 34

Characteristics of preoperational period: Achievements

Answer 34

1) development of symbolic function: The ability to make one thing stand or represent something else Contributes to the use of language Enables children to pretend play Spatial representation is possible-- metal representation of objects in space. (EX: The word table is not really a table but it stands for a table and when we hear the word we are able to picture a table in our minds) 2) language development: Helps push along symbolic function

Question 35

Characteristics of preoperational period: Cognitive Limitations

Answer 35

egocentrism: animism: centration: focus on appearance: irreversibility:

Question 36

egocentrism

Answer 36

piaget’s term for children’s tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective. The ability to distinguish my point of view from your point of view. (EX: When a mother is sick, the child doesn’t understand why the mom doesn’t want to play because all they child understands is that he feels fine.)

Question 37

animism

Answer 37

The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive.(EX: If a mom breaks a barbie doll, the child will freak out and say that the mom killed the barbie) static reasoning: Belief that the world and people are unchanging. The world that the child sees right now is the way is always has been and the way it will always be. They find it hard to believe that their parents were ever little kids because they have only ever known them as adults. The child may also believe that they will always be that age and will always look the same.

Question 38

centration

Answer 38

a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses on one idea, excluding all others. only focus on one part of a problem that they are trying to solve. (EX: They will think a tall skinny beaker has more water than a short fat beaker because they only consider height not width.)

Question 39

focus on appearance:

Answer 39

a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent

Question 40

irreversibility:

Answer 40

The inability to reverse one’s thinking. (EX: A child could understand that 3+4=7 but find it hard to grasp that 7-4=3)

Question 41

Limitations of theory

Answer 41

sample too small - He only observed his three children methods too simple brain activity unseen Advances in technology have revealed that children can perform some tasks earlier that Piaget’s research indicated. Piaget’s conservation task requires words

Question 42

Information processing theory-

Answer 42

a perspective that compares human thinking process, by analogy, to a computer analysis of data- including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output. Affordances-- concern perception affordance- An opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment. Object, creatures, and especially people that move are particularly interesting to infants, because they afford many possibilities for interaction and perception. Early affordances are evidence of early cognition Memory-- concerns brain organization and output Infant memory is fragile but not completely absent. Reminder sessions help trigger memories, and young brains learn motor sequences and respond to repeated emotions (their own and those of other people) long before they can remember with words. Memory is multifaceted; explicit memories are rare in infancy.

Question 43

Language Development

Answer 43

infants need to be taught. social impulses foster infant language (social-pragmatic theory): infants teach themselves sociocultural theory:

Question 44

infants need to be taught.

Answer 44

Based on Behaviorism perspective. Children’s babbling is usually enforced. Operant Conditioning. Typically every time the baby says “ma-ma-ma-ma”, a grinning mother appears, repeating the sounds and showering the baby with attention and praise. Parents respond to the gestures and sounds of their infants, thus reinforcing speech. Parents are expert teachers:

Question 45

social impulses foster infant language (social-pragmatic theory):

Answer 45

Based on sociocultural perspective. Infants communicate because humans are social beings, dependant on one another for survival and joy. All infants master words and grammar to join the social world in which they find themselves. It is the emotional message of speech, not the words, that propel communication

Question 46

infants teach themselves

Answer 46

Chomsky- Innate. Language learning is genetically programmed to begin at a certain age. Arises from the universal human impulse to imitate. Chomsky cited universal grammar as evidence that humans are born with a mental structure that prepares them to seek some elements of human language. Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Question 47

sociocultural theory:

Answer 47

Vygotsky- Mentors, Scaffolding (zone of proximal development) -Sequence of language development-infancy through early childhood (chart on pg 169) new borns: reflexive communication- cries, movements, facial expressions 2 months: range of meaningful noises- cooing, fussing, and facial expressions 3-6 months: new sounds- squeals, growls, croons 6-10 months: babbling- consonant and vowel sounds repeated in syllables 10-12 months: comprehension of simple words 12 months: first spoken words recognized in native language 13-18 months: slow growth of vocab. 18 months: naming explosion (a sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns)- 3 or more words learned per day 21 months: first 2 word sentence 24 months: multiword sentences: 2 or more words long

Question 48

Factors influencing language development

Answer 48

social interaction | maternal responsiveness

Question 49

pragmatics

Answer 49

knowing when which words, tones, and grammatical forms to use with which person

Question 50

overregularization:

Answer 50

when children sometimes apply the rules of grammar when they should not ex: foots, tooths, mouses, etc.

Question 51

Vygotsky’s theory (Sociocultural)

Answer 51

adults provide the scaffolding for advancing cognitive and language development Conversations between adult and child is key to development teaching must be within the “zone of proximal development” (best type of teaching, not too difficult, and not too easy) These conversations are internalized by the child, which changes how child thinks & understands language New thinking & language is applied to problem solving/interactions with others (family, peers) Private Speech is used when kids encounter a difficulty (e.g., when something is confusing) talking to themselves, verbalizing outloud During the course of early childhood, private speech gradually leads to Internal Speech problem-solving, thinking-- “what do I have to do after class?” “where am I going?”

Question 52

Primary emotions

Answer 52

Primary- birth→ interest, distress, disgust; 2-7 months→ anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear smiling and laughter- first expression of pleasure: fear- first negative emotion: •separation anxiety: normal at age 1, declines at 2, cultural differences •individual difference in emotion: •temperant: can influence emotional intensity/regulation •contextual factors: affect infant reactions to strangers

Question 53

Secondary emotions

Answer 53

Secondary- 2yrs and up- self conscious/evaluative emotions→ shame, envy, guilt, pride, embarrassment, jealousy emotional self regulation: the regulation and inhibition of emotions and emotional reactions delay of gratification: waiting for a more appropriate time and place to engage in a desirable activity to obtain a desired goal cortisol: primary stress hormone jealousy: secondary emotion guilt: secondary emotion differentiating between pride and shame:

Question 54

Emotional Regulation

Answer 54

ability to control when and how emotions are expressed

Question 55

Role of culture (pg 278

Answer 55

Children may be encouraged to laugh/cry/yell or opposite to hide their emotions, depending on how they’re regulated due to their beliefs.

Question 56

Origins of Personality (temperament)

Answer 56

temperament- Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment

Question 57

Attachment theory and research- mary ainsworth | -Categories

Answer 57

secure anxious-resistant: anxious avoidant: disorganized:

Question 58

secure

Answer 58

explores new environment - uses parent as a secure base - shows distress when parent leaves - usually open to strangers overtures - seeks physical contact with parent at return - can be comforted by parent

Question 59

anxious-resistant:

Answer 59

- Does not explore - shows extreme distress when parent leaves - resists strangers attempts to engage in play - initially seek contact when parent returns but then resists parent - difficult to comfort

Question 60

anxious avoidant:

Answer 60

- rarely explores environment - unresponsive to parent - does not show distress when parent leaves - unresponsive to stranger - avoids parent upon return, or passive in contact with parent

Question 61

disorganized:

Answer 61

- rarely explores environment - may cling or avoid parent - shows great distress when parent leaves - avoids contact with stranger - may seek out parent upon return, or may avoid parent or both - flattened affect

Question 62

secure (caregivers)

Answer 62

Consistent in responding to infant’s needs. – good at reading emotional cues – encouragement and exploration of the enviro. – available when infants are distress – enjoy being with and playing with their infants.

Question 63

Anxious-Resistant Caregivers

Answer 63

inconstant in meeting with infants need – not very good at reading emotional cues – not competent encouraging exploration of the environment – not always available when infants are distress – usually enjoy being w/ infants

Question 64

Anxious-Avoidant Caregivers

Answer 64

– inconstant in meeting with infants needs – may be good at reading emotional cues – not always available when infants is in distress, and often displays displeasure in infants – sometimes view infant as interferenece

Question 65

Disorganized Caregivers

Answer 65

inconsistent in meeting w/ infants – not usually good at reading infants' emotional causes. – does not encourage exploration of the enviro. – sometimes available, sometimes hostile (abusive) – sometimes enjoy being w/ infants

Question 66

secure: Developmental Consequences

Answer 66

display highest levels of cognitive, emotional, and social competence throughout preschool, elementary school and adolescence

Question 67

-anxious resistant: Developmental Consequences

Answer 67

most disruptive, attention seeking, may be manipulative in relationships

Question 68

anxious avoidant: Developmental Consequences

Answer 68

withdrawn and aggressive difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships

Question 69

disorganized: Developmental Consequences

Answer 69

withdrawn, aggressive, disruptive, poorest prognosis of all insecure groups. Difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships

Question 70

Development of self understanding:

Answer 70

At around 18 months infants understand the concept of self. This later plays a role in development when the child begins to feel emotions such as shame or pride.

Question 71

solitary play:

Answer 71

a child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby

Question 72

onlooker play:

Answer 72

onlooker play:

Question 73

parallel play:

Answer 73

children play with similar objects in similar ways but not together

Question 74

associative play:

Answer 74

children interact sharing material, but their play is not reciprocal

Question 75

cooperative play

Answer 75

children play together, creating dramas or taking turns

Question 76

rough-and-tumble play:

Answer 76

play that mimics aggression through wrestling,chasing, or hitting, but where there is not intent in harm

Question 77

sociodramatic play

Answer 77

pretend play in early childhood is thrilling and powerful

Question 78

Baumrind’s styles of parenting:

Answer 78

authoritative/traditional: permissive: authoritarian: dismissive

Question 79

authoritative/traditional:

Answer 79

parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible. Limits and guidance provided, but also parental warmth. Children are more likely to be successful, articulate and happy. Experience better success in peer relationships.

Question 80

permissive:

Answer 80

high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control. Children likely lack self-control, impulsive (emotional regulation). Socially incompetent, experience difficulties in peer relationships.

Question 81

authoritarian:

Answer 81

characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment, and little communication from child to parent. High standards and expectations with low nurturance. Children are likely to become conscientious, obedient, and quiet-- but not as happy. Children may become rebellious in adolescence.

Question 82

dismissive

Answer 82

Low demands and expectations with low responsiveness. Children lacks self-control, has difficulties in school and with peer relationships, socially incompetent.