Exam 2

Question 1

A(n) __, is an evaluation of a person, object or idea

Answer 1

Attitude

Question 2

A(n) __ component, consisting of emotional reactions toward the attitude object (e.g., another person or a social issue)

Answer 2

Affective

Question 3

A(n) __ component, consisting of thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object

Answer 3

Cognitive

Question 4

A(n) __ component, consisting of actions or observable behavior toward the attitude object

Answer 4

Behavioural

Question 5

An attitude is made up of three components:

Answer 5

1) Affective
2) Behavioural
3) Cognitive

Question 6

A(n) __, is an attitude based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object

Answer 6

Affectively based attitude

Question 7

What are the three things in common that affectively based attitudes have?

Answer 7

1) They do not result from a rational examination of the issues
2) They are not governed by logic (e.g., persuasive arguments about the issues seldom change an affectively based attitude)
3) They are often linked to people’s values, so that trying to change them challenges those values

Question 8

Attitudes toward abortion, the death penalty, and premarital sex are examples of affectively based attitudes that are likely to be based on people’s __

Answer 8

Value systems

Question 9

A(n) __ is an attitude based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

Answer 9

Cognitively based attitude

Question 10

A(n) __ is an attitude based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object

Answer 10

Behaviourally based attitude

Question 11

What is Daryl Bem’s self-perception theory?

Answer 11

Under certain circumstances people don’t know how they feel until they see how they behave

Question 12

Haddock and Zanna (1998) found that attitudes toward social issues such as capital punishment were more likely to be based on how people __ about the issue, rather than on their __ about it

Answer 12

Felt (affect); thoughts (cognition)

Question 13

__ attitudes are ones we consciously endorse and can easily report; they are what we think of as our evaluations when someone asks us a question

Answer 13

Explicit

Question 14

__ attitudes are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

Answer 14

Implicit

Question 15

__, is a theory that the best predictors of a person’s planned, deliberate behaviors are the person’s attitudes toward specific behaviors subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

Answer 15

Theory of planned behavior

Question 16

The theory of planned behavior holds that only __ toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior

Answer 16

Specific attitudes

Question 17

__, is communication (e.g., a speech or television advertisement) advocating a particular side of an issue

Answer 17

Persuasive communication

Question 18

__, is the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages; researchers in this tradition focus on “who said what to whom” - that is, on the source of communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience

Answer 18

Yale Attitude Change Approach

Question 19

__, is the theory that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: people either process the merits of the arguments (known as systematic processing) or are swayed by factors that are peripheral to the message itself, such as “experts are always right”

Answer 19

Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion

Question 20

__, is the theory that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: the central route occurs when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and the peripheral route occurs when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech)

Answer 20

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Question 21

Sometimes people elaborate on what they hear, carefully thinking about and processing the content of the communication. Chaiken calls this __, whereas Petty and Cacioppo call this __

Answer 21

Systematic processing; central route to persuasion

Question 22

Under other conditions, people are not motivated to pay attention to the facts; instead they notice only the surface characteristics of the message, such as how long it is and who is delivering it. (Persuaded if the message is long or if the communicator is attractive or an expert). Chaiken calls this __, whereas Petty and Cacioppo call this __

Answer 22

Heuristic processing; peripheral route to persuasion (because people are swayed by things peripheral to the message itself)

Pg. 165

Question 23

What determines whether people take the central versus the peripheral route to persuasion?

Answer 23

• If people are truly interested in the topic and motivated and ability to pay close attention to the arguments and if nothing is distracting them, they will take the central route
• If people are bored, tired, or not able to concentrate, they will tend to take the peripheral route

Question 24

What did the researchers at Brock University discover about taking the central route in comparison to the peripheral route?

Answer 24

That people were more likely to take the central route when the message was presented in clear, comprehensible language; and they relied on the peripheral route when arguments were presented using complicated, jargon-laden language

Question 25

A pervasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears is known as __

Answer 25

Fear-arousing communication

Question 26

Attitudes that are based more on beliefs about the attitude object are __, whereas others are based more on emotions and values are __

Answer 26

Cognitively based attitudes; affectively based attitudes

Question 27

A case study researched by Han and Shavitt showed which differences in American and Korean ads?

Answer 27

- American ads tended to emphasize individuality, self-improvement, and benefits of the product for the individual consumer - Korean ads tended to emphasize the family, concerns about others, and benefits for one's social group

Question 28

Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but that supposedly influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors is known as __

Answer 28

Subliminal messages

Question 29

What type of evidence suggests that subliminal messages in advertising works?

Answer 29

There is no evidence that the types of subliminal messaged used in everyday life have any influence on people's behavior - One study randomly assigned people to listen to a subliminal self-help tape designed to improve memory or one designed to improve self-esteem. Neither of the tapes had any effect on people's memory or self-esteem

Question 30

The process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position is known as __

Answer 30

Attitude inoculation

Question 31

What is cognitive dissonance?

Answer 31

A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one's behavior is inconsistent with one's attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes Pg. 174

Question 32

__, is dissonance that is inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision, such dissonance is typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives

Answer 32

Post-decision dissonance Pg. 177

Question 33

__, is the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

Answer 33

Justification of effort

Question 34

__, is a person's reason or explanation for dissonant behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment)

Answer 34

External justification

Question 35

__, is the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior)

Answer 35

Internal justification

Question 36

__, is the process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitude that runs counter to his or her private belief or attitude

Answer 36

Counter-attitudinal advocacy Pg. 181

Question 37

__, is the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object

Answer 37

Insufficient punishment

Question 38

__, is the potential for dissonance reduction to produce a succession of self-justifications that ultimately result in a chain of stupid or immoral actions

Answer 38

Rationalization trap

Question 39

__, is a theory suggesting that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat

Answer 39

Self-affirmation theory

Question 40

There is evidence that affirming people in some way (e.g., boosting their self-esteem) or reminding them of their morals may reverse the __

Answer 40

Rationalization trap

Question 41

Students that were paid $20 for lying, rated the activity as __, whereas the students that were paid $1, rated the activity __

Answer 41

Boring and dull; significantly more enjoyable

Question 42

McAlister and colleagues (1980) used a role-playing technique with seventh graders designed to prevent smoking in adolescents. What did they find?

Answer 42

These students were significantly less likely to smoke three years after the study, compared with a control group that had not participated in the program Pg. 173

Question 43

Bernard, Maio, and Olson (2003) had participants generate various kinds of arguments supporting the value of equality. A control group was not required to generate any arguments. What did they find?

Answer 43

Those who had formulated arguments were less likely to be persuaded by messages attacking the value of equality - There is evidence that if people are able to resist an attack on their attitudes, they may actually come to hold those attitudes with greater certainty as a result

Question 44

Why is product placement generally more successful than commercials?

Answer 44

People do not realize that someone is trying to influence their attitudes and behavior

Question 45

According to social comparison interpretation, when people discuss an issue in a group, what happens?

Answer 45

- They first check how everyone else feels; what does the group value - being risky or being cautious? - Many people take a position that is similar to everyone else's but a little more extreme. In this way, the individual supports the group's value and also presents him/herself in a positive light (impressive thinker)

Question 46

What is great person theory?

Answer 46

The theory that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces

Question 47

Compared with nonleaders, leaders tend to be:

Answer 47

More intelligent, more extroverted, more driven by the desire for power, more charismatic, more socially skilled, more adaptive and flexible, and more confident in their leadership abilities

Question 48

Bradley and colleagues (2002) followed Canadian Forced officer candidates and discovered which one trait that emerged as particularly useful in predicting who would make a good leader? Why?

Answer 48

Dominance | - It suggests that "military operations are not the place for insecure people"

Question 49

What is integrative complexity? (Peter Suedfeld and his colleagues)

Answer 49

The ability to recognize more than one perspective on an issue and to be able to integrate these various perspectives - These researchers have found substantial correlations between integrative complexity and greatness among Canadian prime ministers and other prominent leaders

Question 50

Simonton (1987, 2001) gathered information on 100 personal attributes of all U.S presidents, and found three variables that correlated with how effective the presidents were in office, as rated by historians:

Answer 50

- Height - Family size - Number of books a president published before taking office * The other 97 characteristics, including personality traits, were not related to leadership effectiveness at all *

Question 51

Stewart McCann (1992) did a similar study as Simonton (1987, 2001) and found which variables that emerged?

Answer 51

- IQ - Height - Attractiveness - Tidiness - Achievement drive * Specifically, great presidents tend to be smart, tall, not good-looking, messy, and achievement-oriented *

Question 52

__, are leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them

Answer 52

Transactional leaders

Question 53

__, are leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals

Answer 53

Transformational leaders

Question 54

Most research has focused on which type of leaders?

Answer 54

Transformational

Question 55

Are transformational and transactional leadership styles mutually exclusive?

Answer 55

No, in fact, the most effective leader is one who adopts both styles

Question 56

Peter Suedfeld and his colleagues made the discovery that great leaders __ in integrative complexity during a crisis and then return to their usual level of complexity afterward

Answer 56

Increase

Question 57

__, is the theory that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group

Answer 57

Contingency Theory of Leadership

Question 58

__, is a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings of and relationships among the workers

Answer 58

Task-oriented leader

Question 59

__, is a leader who is concerned primarily with the feelings of and relationships among the workers

Answer 59

Relationship-oriented leader

Question 60

Task-oriented leaders do well in __ work situations - situations in which the leader has excellent interpersonal relationships with subordinates, his or her position in the company is clearly perceived as powerful, and the work to be done by the group is structured and well defined

Answer 60

High control

Question 61

__ work are situations in which the leader has poor relationships with subordinates and the work to be done is not clearly defined

Answer 61

Low control

Question 62

Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in situations that are __ work situations; the leader who can soothe such feelings will be most successful

Answer 62

Moderate control

Question 63

According to Fiedler, task-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is __, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best when situational control is __

Answer 63

High or low; moderate

Question 64

Women are expected to be __, and men are expected to be __

Answer 64

Communal; agentic

Question 65

__, is a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone

Answer 65

Social dilemma

Question 66

One of the most common ways of studying social dilemmas in the laboratory is with a game called the __

Answer 66

Prisoner's dilemma

Question 67

In a study conducted with Chinese students in Hong Kong, it was found that showing symbols of Chinese culture before the game (i.e. Chinese dragon) made people more __, whereas showing them symbols of Western culture (i.e. American flag) made them more __

Answer 67

Cooperative; competitive

Question 68

A study (Song, 2009) revealed that greater trust of __ than __ was confirmed. Why?

Answer 68

Individuals; groups Because two individuals who play prisoner's dilemma are more likely to cooperate than two groups who play the same game; people are more likely to assume that another individual is cooperative at heart and can be trusted, but that most groups of individuals will (if given the opportunity) stab us in the back like the sneaky bitches they are

Question 69

__, is a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (i.e. cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial

Answer 69

Tit-for-Tat strategy

Question 70

Research conducted at the University of Guelph and at two universities in Japan has shown that freeloading is __ likely when the rewards at stake are large rather than small

Answer 70

Less - When freeloading is reduced, groups can arrive at decisions that are beneficial to everyone and they do so more easily and efficiently

Question 71

How did the participants respond to the trucking game dilemma? In another version of the study, what happened when Acme was given a gate that could block Bolt from using that route? (Unilateral threat)

Answer 71

- Most of them worked out a solution that allowed both trucks to make a modest amount of money - taking turns, one waiting until the other person crossed the one-lane road, and then they would take that route as well - In the other version, both participants lost more than when neither side had the gate; Acme won slightly more than Bolt, but won substantially more when neither side had the gate

Question 72

Does the mode of communication affect the development of trust?

Answer 72

Yes it does; they found that negotiations conducted over electronic media were more hostile, and resulted in lower profits, than old-fashioned face-to-face negotiations

Question 73

__, is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict, in which offers and counter-offers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree

Answer 73

Negotiation

Question 74

__, is a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side

Answer 74

Integrative solution

Question 75

What is one limit to successful negotiation?

Answer 75

People often assume they are locked in a conflict in which only one party can come out head; they don't realize that solutions favorable to both parties are available

Question 76

Why do people find it difficult to identity integrative solutions?

Answer 76

One barrier is a tendency for us to assume that what is important to us is obvious to everyone - including our opponent. However, this assumption is not necessarily warranted

Question 77

Research has found that using threats to resolve conflict:

Answer 77

Often tends to escalate rather than resolve conflicts. Communication, resolves conflicts only when it promotes trust