Exam 2 Flashcards
(189 cards)
1
Q
aside from cAMP, what are some other common second messengers in G-protein coupled receptor transduction pathways?
A
IP3, DAG, Ca2+
2
Q
______ is the most powerful second messenger that we know of
A
Calcium
3
Q
In cells that use Ca2+ as a second messenger instead of cAMP, G-protein coupled receptor activation leads to activation of the effector molecule _____
A
PLC (Phospholipase C).
4
Q
PLC catalyzes the hydrolysis of ____ , which is found in phospholipid tails, into ___ and ___.
A
- PIP2 (Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate)
- IP3
- DAG
5
Q
___________ and _________ are both lipid signaling molecules.
A
- IP3 (inositol triphosphate)
- DAG (diacylglycerol)
6
Q
o DAG activates ________, which phosphorylates transcription factors and alters gene expression.
A
-Protein Kinase C
7
Q
IP3 binds its receptor on the __________, which acts as a ____ channel and releases stored Ca2+ into the cytosol. This Ca2+ release, through a poorly-understood mechanism, opens a class of plasma membrane ion channels called ________________ channels and allows external Ca2+ to enter the cell and replenish depleted Ca2+ stores in the endoplasmic reticulum.
A
- endoplasmic reticulum
- Ca2+
- Transient Receptor Potential
8
Q
- Afferent division: Carries information ____ the CNS
- Efferent division: Carries information _____ the CNS
A
- TO
- away from
9
Q
Efferent division: Carries information away from the CNS to _____________
A
effector organs.
10
Q
Effector organs-
A
o Muscles and glands that carry out orders to bring about the desired effect
11
Q
The Efferent division is subdivided into what two divisions?
A
somatic and autonomic
12
Q
the somatic nervous system consists of:
A
fibers of motor neurons that supply skeletal muscles
13
Q
The autonomic nervous system consists of:
A
fibers that innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
14
Q
the autonomic nervous system is subdivided into what two divisions?
A
- Sympathetic nervous system
* Parasympathetic nervous system
15
Q
at the peripheral ending of an afferent neuron there is a _______ that generates _____ in response to stimuli
A
- Sensory Receptor
- Action Potentials
16
Q
interneurons are found entirely within the ____. They lie between _________
A
- CNS
- afferent and efferent neurons
17
Q
interneurons are responsible for: (2 things)
A
- Integrating afferent information and formulating an efferent response
- higher mental functions associated with the “mind”
18
Q
neuroglia are also called:
A
glial cells or non-neuronal cells
19
Q
Unlike neurons, neuroglia do not __________, but they do communicate with neurons and among themselves via _________
A
- initiate or conduct nerve impulses
- chemical signals
20
Q
Neuroglia serve as ___________ of CNS:
A
Connective Tissue
21
Q
neuroglia support neurons in 3 ways:
A
• Physically, metabolically, and functionally
22
Q
4 major types of glial cells:
A
- Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal cells
23
Q
what is the most abundant of all glial cells?
A
astrocytes
24
Q
which glial cell is the main glue of the CNS, holding the neurons together?
A
astrocytes
25
Astrocytes are named for their _____ appearance
starlike
26
Which cells guide neurons during fetal brain development?
astrocytes
27
_________ induce capillaries of brain to undergo changes that aid in establishment of blood-brain barrier
astrocytes
28
Important in repair of brain injuries and in neural scar formation:
astrocytes
29
• They are like the road signs and pavement for neurons:
astrocytes
30
Play role in neurotransmitter activity:
| •Take up and degrade Glutamate and GABA
astrocytes
31
Take up excess K+ from brain ECF:
| • Helps maintain optimal ion conditions for neural excitability
astrocytes
32
• Along with other glial cells- enhance synapse formation and modify synaptic transmission
astrocytes
33
• Form insulative myelin sheaths around axons in CNS
oligodendrocytes
34
• Immune defense cells of the CNS. Made from bone marrow. Remove foreign invaders or excess tissue by phagocytosis.
Microglia
35
• Release destructive chemicals that are suspected to play a role in Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and dementia
microglia
36
• In resting state release low levels of growth factors that help neurons and other glial cells survive and thrive
microglia
37
helps neurons and glial cells survive:
Nerve Growth Factor
38
• Line internal, fluid-filled cavities in the brain
ependymal cells
39
• Ciliated cells help form and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
ependymal cells
40
Unlike neurons, glial cells do not lose ability to ______, so most brain tumors consist of glia
divide
41
Brain tumors are generally a result of ______________, or ____________________
- cells that have metastasized and migrate to the brain from other regions
- meningiomas, which originate from the meninges, the protective covering of CNS cells.
42
_______ (skull) encases brain
Cranium
43
_________ surrounds spinal cord
Vertebral Column
44
the brain is wrapped by 3 protective and nourishing membranes- meninges:
* Dura mater
* Arachnoid mater
* Pia mater
45
Pia mater
fragile, inner-most vascularized layer
46
Arachnoid mater
web-like covering
47
Dura mater
tough inelastic covering
48
major function of CSF?
| It also helps with the ________________
- shock absorbing fluid to prevent brain from colliding with skull
- Exchange of materials between neural cells and interstitial fluid surrounding brain
49
CSF is formed primarily by:
choroid plexuses
50
choroid plexuses-
• Richly vascularized masses of pia matter tissue that dip into pockets formed by ependymal cells
51
BBB prevents certain circulating hormones that could also act as ____________ from reaching brain
neurotransmitters
52
how do we get around BBB preventing drugs from getting to brain? 2 ways
* Intracranial drug delivery
| * Use existing transporters
53
how many neurons are in the brain?
100 billion
54
CNS allows you to do 5 things primarily:
* Subconsciously regulate your internal environment by neural means
* Experience emotions
* Voluntarily control your movements
* Be consciously aware of your own body and your surroundings
* Engage in other higher cognitive processes such as thought and memory
55
who said “The brain is the organ with which we think... we think”
Ambrose Bierce
56
the brain weighs _______
3-3.5 lbs
57
the brain receives __% of the total blood flow to the body per minute
15
58
o Scientists have demonstrated ________ (the formation of new brain cells from stem cells) in adult brains within the hippocampus.
neurogenesis
59
The Brain Stem is continuous with ______
spinal cord
60
The Brain Stem controls many life-sustaining processes, such as ________ (3 things) because they are performed involuntarily.
respiration, circulation, and digestion (vegetative functions),
61
proper________ function is all that is necessary to ensure survival at a basal level.
brain stem
62
The brain stem is concerned with maintaining proper ____________ (2 things)
position of the body in space and subconscious coordination of motor activity (movement)
63
the brain stem consists of 3 things:
* Midbrain
* Pons
* Medulla
64
Neurons that use dopamine are highly concentrated in the ________.
midbrain
65
involved in motor control. Damaged in patients with Parkinson’s disease.
Nigrostriatal dopamine system
66
involved in emotional reward. Overly-active during drug addiction.
Mesolimbic dopamine system
67
Nigrostriatal Dopamine System
o Neurons from the__________ of the brain send dopaminergic neurons to the __________
• Important step in the control and initiation of __________
• _________ disease is caused by degeneration of these neurons.
• Patients are treated with ___________ (2 things)
- substantia nigra
- corpus striatum.
- movements
- Parkinson
- L-dopa and MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors)
68
Mesolimbic Dopamine System
o Regions of the _______ send dopaminergic neurons to regions of the _______
• Involved in _________ and associated with ________
• ___________ is associated with too much dopamine in this system
• Drugs that treat schizophrenia are _____________.
- midbrain
- forebrain.
- emotional reward systems
- addictions
- Schizophrenia
- dopamine antagonists
69
Cerebellum
- ________ region of the brain
- Attached at ________ portion of brain stem
- Important role in ______________ by sending input to the motor areas of cortex
- Maintains proper ___________
- __________ coordination of motor activity (movement)
- Plays key role in learning ____________
- Subcortical
- top rear
- planning, initiating, and timing movements
- position of the body in space
- Subconscious
- skilled motor tasks
70
The Diencephalon houses what 2 brain components?
hypothalamus and thalamus
71
Hypothalamus
- Controls many homeostatic functions important in maintaining stability of internal environment: (5 things)
- Serves as _________ coordinating center
- Affects all _________ muscle and ____________ glands
- Plays role in _____ and _____ patterns
- Most involved in regulating __________
- body temperature, thirst, urine output, food intake, anterior pituitary hormone secretion
- ANS (Autonomic Nervous System)
- smooth and cardiac
- sweat, salivary and other exocrine
- emotional and behavioral
- internal environment
72
Thalamus
- Performs some primitive __________
- Serves as a “relay station” for _________
- Screens out __________ and routes ____________ to appropriate areas
- Helps to direct attention to ___________
- sensory processing
- preliminary processing of sensory input
- insignificant signals
- important sensory impulses
- stimuli of interest
73
Cerebrum
- Highly _______
- Makes up about __% of total brain weight (largest portion of brain)
- Divided into 2 halves:
- Outer surface is _______ cerebral cortex
- outer surface caps inner core that houses ________
- Highest, most complex integrating area of the brain
- Plays key role in ______________
- developed
- 80
- Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres
- highly convoluted
- basal nuclei
- most sophisticated neural functions
74
Cerebral Cortex
- Thin outer shell of _____ matter that covers each hemisphere of cerebrum
- organized into __ well defined layers
- layers are organized into ______
- each half cortex is divided into what 4 major lobes?
- grey
- 6
- functional vertical columns
- occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal
75
Parietal lobe:
Receive and process sensory input
76
Frontal lobe
| -Responsible for 3 main functions:
- Voluntary motor activity
- Speaking ability
- Elaboration of thought
77
Primary Motor Cortex
- Located in _____ lobe
- Confers voluntary control over ___________ -Primarily controls muscles on ______ side of the body
- frontal
- movement produced by skeletal muscles
- the opposite
78
The “Pain Matrix” consists of _______________. Chronic pain conditions such as fibromyalgia and neuropathy are thought to be due to ______________
- 9 different subnuclei in all different areas of the brain.
- overactivity of neurons in these areas of the brian.
79
name 2 chronic pain conditions.
fibromyalgia and neuropathy
80
Pain is a conscious phenomenon. Neurotransmitters such as _____ and ____, as well as neuromodulators such as ______ are the physical manifestation of pain. Neurons in the pain matrix use these chemical messengers to increase our perception of pain as a means of self-preservation
- glutamate
- GABA
- substance P
81
Narcotic pain relievers are usually__________ for receptors for glutamate, GABA, and substance P on these neurons in the pain matrix.
competitive antagonists
82
chronic use of narcotic pain medications like ______ and _______ will inevitably lead to ______.
- ketamine
- morphine
- addiction
83
Researchers have recently begun examining the connection between our perception of pain and the _______________
level of brain activity we devote to dealing with pain.
84
giving pain “attention” means giving pain “meaning”. Emotional significance leads to _________, which makes the perception of pain more intense.
neuromodulation
85
The anxiety and fear that builds up when pain is expected causes neurons in the “__________” in the ________ within pain matrix to become overactive, and it changes the way these cells talk to each other.
- fear center
| - amygdala
86
Two key experiments have provided evidence to support phenomenon between how much we think of pain and our perception of it:
- Virtual reality for military burn victims
| - Shock experimentation for prison inmates
87
Virtual reality for military experiment, quickly describe:
virtual reality lessened their percep. of pain from a 10 to a 5, or they didn't even know they were being scrubbed
88
Shock experiments for inmates, quickly describe:
same shock, but each successive time the pain activity measured was more severe because they anticipated the shock
89
o Most of the knowledge of how the brain controls language has come from studying people with speech problems called ______.
aphasias
90
Two forebrain areas are identified as important in language:
* Broca’s area
| * Wernicke’s area
91
Broca’s Area
-Located in:
-Broca’s aphasia involves ____________ speech. There is no impairment in ___________.
Controls ______ aspects of speech
- left inferior frontal gyrus
- slow, poorly articulated
- understanding
- motor
92
Broca's area
| Interestingly, other actions of the tongue, lips, and larynx are not affected; only the __________ is affected.
production of speech
93
Wernicke’s Area
- Located in:
- Wernicke’s aphasia involves _________________
- Controls _________ of words.
- left superior temporal gyrus
- production of rapid speech with no meaning, called “word salad.” Language (spoken and written) comprehension is destroyed.
- understanding
94
To speak, word comprehension originates in _____ area and is sent to ____ area.
Wernicke’s
| -Broca’s
95
Functions of Cerebral cortex:
- What area plays a preparatory role in programming complex sequences of movement?
- what area is important in orienting the body and arms toward a specific target?
- what area lies posterior to primary somatosensory cortex?
- supplemental motor area
- premotor cortex
- posterior parietal cortex
96
Damage to the posterior parietal cortex or primary somatosensory cortex prevents one from ________________. ***Check that this slide is correct***
processing complex sensory information to accomplish purposeful movement.
97
Damage to what 3 areas will cause motor movement difficulty?
supplemental motor areas, premotor cortex, or posterior parietal cortex
98
mirror neurons are found where?
frontal and parietal lobes.
99
mirror neurons are connected to ________ centers in the brain.
emotion
100
Mirror neurons are activated when:
we observe the expressions of others and mimic them ourselves.
101
mirror neurons may be involved in the ability to __________
learn social skills and language
102
mirror neurons allow for _____
empathy
103
Mirror neurons have been implicated in _____
autism
104
Individuals with autism have mirror neurons that don’t respond to ____________, but only to ___________
- emotions or actions of others
| - their own actions
105
Left Cerebral hemisphere:
- Excels in:
- Tends to process information in ________ way
- logical, analytical, sequential, and verbal tasks (Math, language forms, philosophy)
- fine-detail
106
Right cerebral hemisphere
-Excels in _______ skills
Views the world in a ________ way
- non language (Spatial perception and artistic and musical talents)
- big-picture, holistic
107
Normally, the 2 hemispheres _____each other
-complement
108
Left cerebral hemisphere dominance associated with “_____”
| Right hemispheric skills dominate in “_____”
- thinkers
| - creators
109
Brain area most involved in directly regulating internal environment
Hypothalamus
110
What 9 things does the hypothalamus participate in or control?
* Controls body temperature
* Controls thirst and urine output
* Controls food intake
* Controls anterior pituitary hormone secretion
* Produces posterior pituitary hormones
* Controls uterine contractions and milk ejection
* Serves as a major ANS coordinating center
* Plays role in emotional and behavioral patterns
* Participates in sleep-wake cycle
111
o Not a separate structure but a ring of forebrain structures that surround the brain stem
Limbic System
112
The limbic system includes:
portions of the hypothalamus and other forebrain structures that encircle brain stem
113
The limbic system is responsible for: (3)
* Emotion
* Basic, inborn behavioral patterns related to survival and perpetuation of the species
* Plays important role in motivation and learning
114
There are few synaptic connections between ________, which is why it is hard to control your emotions.
the limbic system and the cerebral cortex
115
Emotions controlled by the limbic system: (5)
* Aggression: areas in the amygdala and hypothalamus
* Fear: amygdala and hypothalamus
* Hunger/satiety: hypothalamus
* Sex drive: the whole system
* Goal-directed behaviors: hypothalamus and other regions
116
o Memory trace-
Neural change responsible for retention or storage of knowledge
117
o Short-term memory-
Lasts for seconds to hours
118
o Long-term memory-
Retained for days to years
119
Consolidation-
Process of transferring and fixing short-term memory traces into long-term memory states (during sleep?)
120
Working memory-
Temporarily holds and interrelates various pieces of information relevant to a current mental task
121
Studies of people with amnesia reveal that areas of the __________ (4) are involved in memory.
temporal lobe, hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and dorsomedial thalamus
122
The ______ is important in learning fear responses.
amygdala
123
_________ may be involved in working memory- very short-term memory.
The prefrontal cortex
124
• Memory consolidation occurs in the _____________ (3)
medial temporal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala.
125
______ is needed for optimum memory consolidation
Sleep
126
_______ memory requires actual structural change
long term
127
Long-term memory can be classified into:
- Nondeclarative (implicit)
| - Declarative (explicit)
128
-Nondeclarative (implicit):
memory of simple skills, how to do things
129
-Declarative (explicit):
memory of things that can be verbalized.
130
Declarative memory is further broken down into:
semantic and episodic
131
Semantic:
facts: how old are you, where do you live
132
Episodic:
events: what did you eat for dinner, tell me about this event
133
People with amnesia have impaired _____ memory
declarative
134
If the memory has an emotional component, the _____ is involved in memory formation. This is why you only remember the really good or really bad days of your life.
amygdala
135
Stress impairs memory formation in the _____ and working memory function of the _____
- hippocampus
| - prefrontal cortex.
136
It is thought that cortisol may strengthen _____ memory formation via the amygdala but weaken _________
- emotional
| - hippocampal memory formation and memory retrieval.
137
The amygdala and hippocampus have receptors for _____ hormones
stress
138
LTP stands for-
long term potentiation
139
Centers that govern sleep are in ______
brain stem
140
_______ builds up during day. Inhibits arousal-leads to drowsiness. Injections of it lead to sleep.
Adenosine
141
Caffeine blocks ______ receptors.
adenosine
142
Adenosine levels drop during sleep because
ATP is being made.
143
Function of sleep is unclear: There are some hypotheses
-repair damage from ________
-Long-term structural and chemical adjustments for learning and memory.
• Might be why infants require so much sleep.
toxic free radicals.
144
In 1950, the avg. person claimed to get ___ hours of sleep. That number is now _____
- 8.5
| - 6.5
145
In a study on healthy 20 yr old males, what was done to them and what was the result.
they were allowed to sleep but an alarm brought them out of REM sleep so that they were getting adequate sleep but none of it was REM. After 2 weeks, all 20 subjects were in a pre-diabetic state, where their cells were becoming resistant to insulin. They all had elevated blood pressure and cholesterol levels, and were at risk for heart disease.
146
Sleep-wake cycle-
Normal cyclic variation in awareness of surroundings
| Sleeping people are not consciously aware of external world
147
Sleep is an active process consisting of two types of sleep characterized by different ________ and different _____. What are the 2 types?
- EEG patterns
- behaviors
- Slow-wave sleep and paradoxical, or REM sleep
148
EEG stands for:
Electroencephalogram
149
EEG is collected by____________
external electrodes on the scalp.
150
EEG measurement is not due to action potentials, but instead represent the ____________
collective postsynaptic potential activity in the cortex (EPSPs + IPSPs)
151
EEG uses: (3)
* Diagnosis of medical conditions
* Legal determination of brain dead
* Sleep stage analysis
152
The largest group of tissues in the body:
muslce
153
what 2 ways are muscle classified?
striated or unstriated and voluntary or involuntary
154
_______ is the only unstriated muscle
smooth
155
______ is the only voluntary muscle
skeletal
156
Controlled muscle contraction allows 4 things:
* Purposeful movement of the whole body or parts of the body
* Manipulation of external objects
* Propulsion of contents through various hollow internal organs
* Emptying of contents of certain organs to external environment
157
Muscle consists of a number of muscle fibers lying ______ to one another and held together by _________
- parallel
| - connective tissue
158
- A single skeletal muscle cell is known as a _______
- How many nuclei?
- Large, elongated, and _______ shaped
- Fibers usually extend how far?
- muscle fiber
- Multinucleated
- cylindrically
- entire length of muscle
159
Contractile elements of skeletal muscle fibers
myofibrils
160
myofibrils are regular arrangements of __________
thick and thin filaments
161
thick filaments are made of:
myosin
162
thin filaments are made of:
actin
163
• Viewed microscopically myofibril displays alternating dark (the _ bands) and light bands (the _ bands) giving the appearance of striations.
- A
| - I
164
Functional unit of skeletal muscle
sarcomere
165
Found between 2 _ lines (connects thin filaments of two adjoining sarcomeres)
Z
166
Regions of Sarcomere
- A band:
- H zone:
- M line:
- I band:
- Made up of thick filaments along with portions of thin filaments that overlap on both ends of thick filaments
- Lighter area within middle of A band where thin filaments do not reach
- Extends vertically down middle of A band within center of H zone
- Consists of remaining portion of thin filaments that do not project into A band
167
Giant, highly elastic protein
Titin
168
Largest protein in body:
Titin
169
Titin extends in both directions from _________ to __________
- M line along length of thick filament
| - Z lines at opposite ends of sarcomere
170
Titin has 2 important roles:
* Along with M-line proteins helps stabilize position of thick filaments in relation to thin filaments
* Greatly augments muscle’s elasticity by acting like a spring
171
-myosin consists of ________ subunits shaped like a ________.
-Tail ends are interwined around each other,
globular heads project out at one end
- 2 identical
| - golf club
172
myosin tails are oriented toward ___________ and globular heads protrude _______ at regular intervals.
- center of filament
| - outward
173
myosin heads from _________ between thick and thin filaments (actin)
cross bridges
174
A cross bridge has 2 important sites critical to contractile process:
o An actin-binding site
| o A myosin ATPase (ATP-splitting) site
175
Actin is _____ in shape
spherical
176
thin filament also has 2 other proteins besides actin:
* Tropomyosin
| * Troponin
177
Each actin molecule has special binding site for ____________. Binding results in _____________
- attachment with myosin cross bridge
| - contraction of muscle fiber
178
Actin and myosin are often called contractile proteins, however ____________.
-Actin and Myosin are not unique to muscle cells, but are more _________ and _________ in muscle cells
- neither actually contracts.
| - abundant and more highly organized
179
Tropomyosin and Troponin are often called ______ proteins
regulatory
180
Thread-like molecules that lie end to end alongside groove of actin spiral
Tropomyosin
181
when lying within the groove of the actin spiral, tropomyosin does what?
covers actin sites blocking interaction that leads to muscle contraction
182
Troponin is made of _ polypeptide units
- One binds to ______
- One binds to ______
- One can bind with _____
- It is a ____ sensitive molecule
- 3
- tropomyosin
- actin
- Ca2+
- Ca2+
183
When not bound to Ca2+, troponin does what?
| When Ca2+ binds troponin, what happens?
- stabilizes tropomyosin in blocking position over actin’s cross-bridge binding sites
- tropomyosin moves away from blocking position, allowing actin and myosin to bind and interact at cross-bridges. muscle contraction results
184
• Cross-bridge interaction between actin and myosin brings about muscle contraction by means of the ________ mechanism.
sliding filament
185
Muslce Relaxation:
- Depends on reuptake of ____ into _______
- Acetylcholinesterase breaks down Ach at __________
- Muscle fiber action potential stops
- When local action potential is no longer present, Ca2+ moves where?
- Ca2+
- sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
- neuromuscular junction
- back into sarcoplasmic reticulum
186
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum:
Modified ___________
-Consists of fine network of _____________
-Segments are wrapped around _____________
- endoplasmic reticulum
- interconnected compartments that surround each myofibril
- each A band and each I band
187
T tubules are also called:
transverse tubules
188
Transverse Tubules:
- Run perpendicularly from _____________ into _____________
- Since membrane is continuous with surface membrane- action potential on surface membrane also _____________
- Spread of action potential down a T tubule triggers____________________
- surface of muscle cell membrane
- central portions of the muscle fiber
- spreads down into T-tubule
- release of Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol
189
The EEG of Paradoxical sleep looks like:
| The EEG of Slow wave sleep looks like:
- an awake person's EEG
| - Large, defined waves/slow waves
