Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Emotions - what purpose do they serve?
A
Evolutionary functions
- innate
- universal
- conserved
2
Q
Evidence for evolutionary basis of emotions
A
- emerge early w/o direct reinforcements
- avoidance mechanisms (may be adaptive)
- similarities w/nonhuman animals
3
Q
What is the discrete emotions theory?
A
The theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in their biology
4
Q
What supports the theory that emotions are universal?
A
Ekman’s research with primary emotions
5
Q
How many primary emotions are there? What are they? What makes them a primary emotion?
A
Seven basic emotions:
- happiness
- disgust
- sadness
- fear
- surprise
- contempt
- anger
—primary bc easier to distinguish from facial expressions
6
Q
What are three aspects of the Discrete emotions theory?
A
Emotions are:
- universal
- physiological responses
- display rules
7
Q
What are display rules in terms of emotions? Give an example
A
Humans have all of the primary emotions, but may not express all of them due to cultural differences
- does not influence the emotion itself, but rather the expression of it
- ie: societal demands in western culture with boys crying
8
Q
How do cognitive theories of emotion consider emotion?
A
They consider emotion to be a product of thinking
9
Q
What are the three cognitive theories of emotion?
A
- James-Lange
- Cannon-Bard
- Two Factor
10
Q
What is the James-Lange theory? Give an example with a spider
A
Emotions are a result from interpretation of out bodily reactions to stimuli
-ie: person sees spider -> begins to shake -> interprets shaking as fear
11
Q
What is the Cannon-Bard theory? What organ is supposedly responsible for this? Give an example with a spider
A
Emotion-provoking events lead simultaneously to an emotion and to bodily reactions
- –believed to be done through the Thalamus
- ie: person sees spider -> begins to shake AND experiences fear at same time
12
Q
What is the Two-factor theory? Give an example with a spider
A
Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of aroused along w/an attribution of that arousal
-ie: person sees spider -> undiff. state of arousal (fear, happiness, etc.) -> attributes arousal to spider -> experiences fear
13
Q
How does arousal and attraction correlate to each other? Give an example
A
Any type of arousal is more likely to lead to more attraction
- ie: attractive female research assistant on solid bridge and wobbly bridge talking to passerbys
- –> those approached on wobbly bridge was found more likely to call back
14
Q
What is an example of an unconscious influence? What discovery did it lead to?
A
Subliminal presentation of emotional stimuli
-Mere exposure effect
15
Q
Mere exposure effect - what is it?
A
Repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it
16
Q
What are some examples of stimuli that are applicable to the mere exposure effect?
A
- Faces
- Shapes
- Nonsense syllables
- Chinese characters
17
Q
What is one test used to detect lying? What does it rely on?
A
Polygraph test
-relies on the Pinocchio response
18
Q
What is the Pinocchio response?
A
a perfect (supposedly) physiological or behavioral indicator of lying
19
Q
What are the physiological signals that a polygraph measures? What do these signals traditionally reflect?
A
Reflect anxiety
- perspiration
- blood pressure
- heart rate
20
Q
What type of questions are asked in a controlled questions test?
A
yes/no questions
- relevant
- control
- irrelevant
21
Q
What do irrelevant questions do? Give an example
A
Establish a baseline (individual’s typical level of arousal)
-ie: Is your name Sam?
22
Q
What are characteristics of control questions?
A
Broader in scope and may involve past
23
Q
What are the three possible results of a polygraph test?
A
- Not deceptive
- Inconclusive
- Deception detected
24
Q
What does a test result of “not deceptive” mean, physiologically?
A
higher level of response for control questions
25
What does a test result of "inconclusive" mean, physiologically?
same level of response for control and relevant questions
26
What does a test result of "deception detected" mean, physiologically?
higher level of response for relevant questions
27
What are the two types of tests that can be administered with a polygraph?
- The controlled question test
| - The guilty knowledge test
28
What is "wrong" with the controlled questions test? Why is this significant?
- False positives possible
- --not admissible in most US courts
- False negatives possible
- --countermeasures
29
What does a false positive mean in a polygraph test?
Individuals who are truthful but read as lying
30
What does a false negative mean in a polygraph test?
Individuals who are lying but read as truthful
31
Are polygraphs admissible in most US courts? Why?
No - not specific towards lying, but to arousal (i.e. nervousness)
32
What does the Guilty Knowledge Test test for? How?
Recognition of concealed knowledge
| -if guilty, should show a heightened physiological response to the correct multiple choice answer when read out loud
33
How accurate is the Guilty Knowledge Test? I.e. how many false positives and how many false negatives? Why?
- Low false positive rate
- High false negative rate
- --maybe forgot, didn't notice, or has same responses for entirety of question
34
Happiness - define
People's sense of how satisfied they are with life
| -"subjective well being"
35
How do we measure happiness?
Self-report scale
36
What do we think is related to happiness, but isn't? Why?
- Money
- --rises, then plateau's around ~75k
- Youth
- --may be due to positivity effect
- Weather
37
What is the positivity effect?
Tend to remember pos. things over neg. things
38
What are some of the correlates with happiness?
- Personal relationships
- Longevity
- Flow
39
How are personal relationships a correlate to happiness?
Positive social life
40
How is longevity a correlate to happiness?
Nun study
- followed nuns as they aged -> all wrote autobiography when younger
- --researchers looked at # of positivity in book and found a correlation btw. the # and age of death
41
What is Flow?
A state of optimal experience in which one engages in activities simply for the sake of the activity itself
42
What are some characteristics of someone experiencing flow?
- Extreme concentration
- --Lack of attention to time
- Loss of self-consciousness
- Provides goals/feedback
43
Are we good at predicting our/others' happiness? Why?
Nope
- Durability bias
- Hedonic treadmill
44
Affective forecasting - define
Prediction of one's emotional state in the future
45
Durability bias - define
Tend to believe good/bad moods will last longer than they do
46
Hedonic treadmill - define
The idea that our moods tend to adapt to external circumstances
47
Motivation - define
Psychological drives that propel us in a specific direction
48
What is the Drive reduction theory? Give examples.
Drives that motivate us in ways that minimize aversive states
-ie: thirst, hunger, sexual tension
49
According to the Drive reduction theory, what are we motivated to maintain?
Homeostasis
50
What does the strength of the drives, according to the drive reduction theory, depend on? What supports this?
Arousal
| -Yerkes-Dodson Law
51
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
Optimal level of performance btw. low and high arousal for both complex and simple tasks
52
What are two different theories under the umbrella of motivation?
- Drive reduction theory
| - Incentive theories
53
What are Incentive theories? Name three
Motivated by positive goals
- Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
- Primary vs secondary needs
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs
54
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation - define it
Internal vs external goals
55
Primary vs secondary needs - define it and give examples
Primary: biological necessities
-huger, thirst
Secondary: psychological desires
-independence, affiliation, etc.
56
What is necessary within Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
You have to satisfy the base before moving up
57
What are the levels within Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Physiological needs -> safety needs -> belonging needs -> esteem needs -> self actualization
58
What is an example of a physiological need?
Food, water
59
What is an example of a belonging need?
Affection
60
What is an example of an esteem need?
Feeling adequate, competent, etc.
61
What does it mean to accomplish self-actualization?
Self-fulfillment
62
Can you skip around in Maslow's hierarchy of needs? Give an example
It is possible to skip around, though not common
| -Studying so hard for an exam that you forgot to eat
63
Which level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is fundamental? What does that mean?
Physiological needs are fundamental
| -they have to be satisfied (generally) before one can focus on other goals
64
What are the three major principles of interpersonal attraction?
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Reciprocity
65
How does proximity relate to interpersonal attraction?
Mere exposure effect
66
What is another term for proximity?
Propinquity
67
How does similarity relate to interpersonal attraction?
- minimizes conflict
- points of connection (mutual understanding)
- feeling of acceptance
- validation of views (feel better about self)
68
Similarity - define it
extent to which we have things in common w/others
69
What is Reciprocity?
The rule of give and take
70
What role, within attraction, does physical attractiveness play during first dates?
Best indicator for whether they would date again
71
What do both Men and Women value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
Intelligence, dependability, kindness
72
What do Men value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
- Initial emphasis on physical characteristics
| - Prefers youth (looks younger than they are)
73
What do Women value when it comes to attraction, according to self reports?
- Financial resources
| - Prefers those who look older than they are
74
What are two areas in which we see sex differences in terms of attraction?
- Evolutionary models
| - Social role theory
75
What are the sex differences in terms of attraction within evolutionary models?
- Men: look for cues of health and fertility bc they produce lots of sperm
- Women: more choosy bc they only produce one egg per month - want to maximize the chances that the child will be cared for
76
What are the sex differences in terms of attraction with the social role theory?
Men: bc don't bare children, more opportunity to pursue higher position jobs
---women cannot bc they bare kids (time off, etc.)
As gender roles tend to change, so do preferences
-ie: in past, men looked bigger bc of role of the hunter/gatherer
77
What are two main factors when it comes to looking at attraction?
- Sex differences
| - Averageness
78
How does averageness affect attraction? Why?
Humans tend to rate "averaged photos" as more attractive
- Mere exposure effect
- Possible evolutionary causes
79
What is the main theory revolving around love?
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
80
What are the three main pillars of Sternberg's triangular theory of love?
- Intimacy
- Passion
- Commitment
81
What is considered to be passionate love?
- Powerful longing
| - Delirious happiness
82
What is considered to be compassionate love?
- Deep friendship
| - Sense of fondness
83
How are passionate love and compassionate love related to each other?
They are seen as independent
| -As time progresses, passionate -> compassionate
84
What is intimacy, according to Sternberg?
Feeling really close to another person
85
What is passion, according to Sternberg?
Infatuation
86
What is commitment, according to Sternberg?
Empty love
| -Wants to stay with person
87
What love is formed with passion and intimacy?
Romantic
88
What love is formed with intimacy and commitment?
Companionate
89
What love is formed with passion and commitment?
Fatuous
90
What love is formed with passion, intimacy, and commitment?
Consummate
91
What is stress?
A response that strains our ability to cope effectively
92
What three stages do we go through as we confront a stressor, according to the general adaptation syndrome?
1. Alarm
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
93
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? How many stages?
The predictable way the body responds to stress
| -3
94
What occurs during the alarm stage of the general adaptation syndrome? List some examples of physiological responses
Flight or fight response triggered
Physiological responses (some):
- adrenaline
- muscles tense
- pupils dilate
- heart rate/breathing increases
- blood pressure increases
- chills/sweating
- digestion may slow
95
What occurs during the resistance stage of the general adaptation syndrome?
Adapt to stressor or find ways to cope
| IF stressor continues and unable to cope, may go into stage 3 (exhaustion)
96
What occurs during the exhaustion stage of the general adaptation syndrome?
Resistance breaks down
| -unable to handle new stressors
97
What is one analogy for stress?
Stress as a transaction -> interaction btw potentially stressful life events and how people interpret and cope with them
- Primary appraisal: is the event harmful?
- Secondary appraisal: how well can I cope?
98
What are the different types of coping?
- Problem focused coping
| - Emotion focused coping
99
What is problem focused coping?
Tackles problem/challenge head on
100
What is emotion focused coping?
Try to engage in positive way
| -attempts to minimize negative emotions around that event
101
What are the different control techniques of coping?
- Behavioral
- Cognitive
- Informational
- Decisional
- Emotional
102
Hardiness is a set of attitudes marked by...?
- A sense of control
- Commitment
- Courage and motivation
103
What is hardiness associated with?
Health
104
What are three ways of coping?
- Hardiness
- Optimism
- Rumination
105
What is Optimism associated with?
Associated with:
- productivity
- health outcomes (i.e. better immune response)
106
What is Rumination?
When you focus on how bad you feel and endlessly analyze the causes and consequences of your problems
107
How is Rumination associated with coping? Any gender differences?
Those who ruminate usually struggle to find solutions to problems
-Women tend to ruminate more than men
108
What is a Confederate?
A person who participates in the study but is working for the researcher
109
What is social psychology?
The study of how people influence others' behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
110
What is the definition of attribution?
The process of assigning causes to behavior
111
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
The tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on other people's behavior (rather than, i.e., situational causes)
----Overestimate internal causes rather than external causes (broken bathroom stall lock example)
112
What are three factors of social influence?
- Conformity
- Deindividuation
- Obedience
113
What is the definition of conformity?
The tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
114
What was one study that was done that tested conformity? Who was the main researcher? What was he interested in?
Asch Study
| -Solomon Asch: interested in why people conform
115
What was the Asch study?
- Participants were called in in small groups (most were confederate's)
- In 12/18 trials, confederates gave the wrong answer
- 75% of participants went along w/wrong answer at least once
- --size of group matters, to an extent
116
What is the definition of deindividuation?
The tendency of people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when they are stripped of their usual identities
117
What was one study that was done that tested deindividuation? Who was the main researcher?
Standford Prison Study
| -Philip Zimbardo
118
What was the Stanford Prison study?
- Participants (all male) were volunteers for a study revolving "prison life" and were randomly assigned as prisoner or guard
- Guards were given no specific instructions on how to be guards...just told to "maintain order"
- By the end of the 2 weeks, participants had fully taken on the assigned role
- --study had to be ended after 6 days due to harsh conditions
119
What is the definition of obedience?
Adherence to instructions from those of higher authority
120
What was one study that was done that tested obedience? Who was the main researcher? What was he interested in?
Milgrim experiments
| -Stanely Milgrim: interested in how situational factors influence obedience
121
What was the Milgrim experiment?
A study of "memory"
- participant ("teacher") in one room and confederate ("learner") in another
- "teacher" told to administer increasing voltage of shocks when "learner" gets a wrong answer
- "confederate" starts to give wrong answers early on and responds to "shocks" via grunting, "ouch", etc.
- Results: all participants administered at least some shocks
- --62% went up to highest voltage
122
What is the definition of aggression?
Behavior intended to harm others, physically or verbally
123
Why might someone display aggression?
- Situational factors
| - Dispositional factors
124
What are some situational factors that may elicit aggression?
- Interpersonal provokation
- Frustration
- Arousal
- Alcohol and other drugs
- Temperature
125
What are some dispositional factors that may elicit aggression?
- Personality traits
- Sex differences
- Cultural differences
126
What is the definition of relational aggression?
Harming other people by harming their relationships
| -ie: gossip, rumors, etc.
127
What are the sex differences within dispositional factors that may elicit aggression?
Males tend to portray more physical aggression while some believe that females display more relational aggression
128
What is the definition of attitude?
A belief that includes an emotional component
| -"How do you feel about...?"
129
Do attitudes predict behavior?
Yes, but only moderately - w/some exceptions
130
What is the definition of cognitive dissonance?
Unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from 2 conflicting thoughts or beliefs
131
Cognitive Dissonance Theory - give an example of a scenario
Look at notes for answer
132
Attitude change study -> what happened? Why?
1. Boring manual tasks
2. Asked to tell new participant how great it was: gets $1 or $20
Those who got $1:
- reported much more enjoyment
- reported that would participate again more than those who got $20
-$1 folks had dissonance and had to resolve it, $20 peeps did not
133
What study has been done that displays the cognitive dissonance theory?
Attitude change study by Festinger and Carlsmith
134
What is social support?
Relationships with people and groups that con provide us with emotional comfort and personal and financial resources
135
Where can you find social support?
- Friends and family
| - A group you are a part of
136
What was a study that studied social support? What did they do? What were the findings?
Longitudinal test that measured the probability of dying - were social connections related to rates of dying?
-Less social support = higher mortality rates
137
What is behavioral control?
The ability to do something to reduce the impact of a stressful situation or prevent its recurrence
138
What are 6 ways to cope with stress?
- Social support
- Behavioral control
- Cognitive control
- Decisional control
- Informational control
- Emotional control
139
What is an example of behavioral control?
Problem-focused coping
| -Instead of avoidance or giving up, talk to coach
140
What is cognitive control?
The ability to think differently about negative emotions that arise in response to stress providing events
141
What is an example of cognitive control?
Emotion-focused coping
| -Putting a positive on a situation
142
What was one study that was done that looked at cognitive control?
Stimulated hijacking and captivity
- problem focused coping condition vs emotion focused coping condition
- --emotion focused coping group did better
143
What is Decisional control?
The ability to choose among alternative courses of action
| -If you are choosing among different options, feeling more in control
144
What is Informational control?
The ability to acquire info about a stressful event
| -"Tell me exactly what's going to happen"
145
What is Emotional control?
The ability to suppress and express emotions
| -Being able to suppress/express as needed
146
What is one study that looked at Emotional control as a method of coping?
Subjects asked to write in diary for 4 days
- Experimental: write about trauma...get deep
- Control: write about superficial things
- --Blood was drawn after 6 weeks, with amount of visits to student health recorded
- >Failing to confront trauma is leads to stress
- --Experiment: less visits to student health
- --Control: visits to student health went up
147
What is social loafing? Why?
A phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups
-Diffusion of responsibility
148
What is altruism?
Helping others for unselfish reasons
149
What is bystander nonintervention?
When people see a victim in need but fail to help them
150
Why does bystander nonintervention happen?
- Pluralistic ignorance
| - Diffusion of responsibility
151
What is pluralistic ignorance?
A situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it
-error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do
152
What is the definition of diffusion of responsibility?
Reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others
153
When are we more likely to practice bystander intervention? What evidence supports this?
Across 3 experiments involving bystander intervention, the % of people helping when in groups was markedly lower than the % of people helping when alone
154
What is the enlightenment effect?
Learning about psychological research can change real-world behavior for the better
155
What may influence our engagement in altruism?
- empathetic
- Enlightenment effect
- Gender differences? Some say men are more likely to help than women
156
What is the definition of self monitoring?
Personality train that assesses the extent to which people's behavior reflects their true feelings and attitudes
157
What is the definition of emotion?
Mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences
158
What are cognitive theories of emotion?
Theories that emotions are products of thinking
159
What is the somatic marker theory?
Theory proposing that we use our "gut reactions" to help us determine how we should act
160
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
Theory that blood vessels in the face feed back temperature info in the brain, altering our experience of emotions
161
What is nonverbal leakage?
Unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior
162
What is the definition of proxemics?
Study of personal space
163
What is the integrity test?
Questionnaire that presumably assesses workers' tendency to steal or cheat
164
What is the broaden and build theory?
The theory that happiness predisposes us to think more openly
165
What is the definition of self-esteem?
Evaluation of our worth
166
What are positive illusions?
Tendencies to perceive ourselves more favorably than others do
167
What is positive psychology?
A discipline that has sought to emphasize human strength
168
What is defensive pessimism?
The strategy of anticipating failure and compensating for this expectation by mentally over-preparing for negative outcomes
169
What is the glucostatic theory?
The theory that when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose
170
What is leptin?
A hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used
171
What is a set point?
A value that establishes a range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain
172
What is the internal-external theory?
The theory holding that obese people are motivated to eat more by external cues than internal ones
173
What is bulimia nervosa?
An eating disorder associated with a pattern of bingeing and purging in an effort to lose or maintain weight
174
What is anorexia nervosa?
An eating disorder associated with excessive weight loss and the irrational perception that one is overweight
175
What are the 4 phases within a sexual response?
1. Excitement phase
2. Plateau phase
3. Orgasm (climax) phase
4. Resolution phase
176
What is the excitement phase of a sexual response characterized with?
The experiencing of sexual pleasure and noticing of physiological changes associated with it
177
What is the plateau phase of a sexual response?
A phase in which sexual tension builds
178
What is the orgasm (climax) phase of a sexual response?
Marked by involuntary rhythmic contractions in the muscles of genitals in both men and women
179
What is the resolution phase of a sexual response?
The phase following an orgasm in which people report relaxation and a sense of well-being
180
What is corticosteroid?
A stress hormone that activates the body and prepares us to respond to stressful circumstances
181
What is a primary appraisal?
Initial decision regarding whether an event in harmful
182
What is a secondary appraisal?
Perceptions regarding our ability to cope with an event that follows primary appraisal
183
What is a hassle?
A minor annoyance or nuiance that strains our ability to cope
184
What is the tend and befriend reaction?
A reaction that mobilizes people to nurture (tend) or seek social support (befriend) under stress
185
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
The study of the relationship between the immune system and central nervous system
186
What is the definition of psychophysiological?
Illnesses such as asthma and ulcers in which emotions and stress contribute to, maintain, or aggravate the physical condition
187
What is the biopsychosocial perspective?
The view that an illness or a medical condition is the product of the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors
188
What is the Type A personality?
Personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious
189
What is proactive coping?
Anticipation of problems and stressful situations that promotes effective coping
190
What is aerobic exercise?
Exercise that promotes the use of oxygen in the body
191
What is alternative medicine?
Health care practices and products used in place of conventional medicine
192
What is complementary medicine?
Health care practices and products used together with conventional medicine
193
What is homeopathic medicine?
Remedies that feature a small does of an illness-inducing substance to activate the body's own natural defenses
194
What is biofeedback?
Feedback by a device that provides almost an immediate output of a biological function, such as heart rate or skin temp
195
What is meditation?
A variety of practices that train attention and awareness
196
What is the social comparison theory?
The theory that we seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others
197
What is mass hysteria?
Outbreak of irrational behavior that is spread by social contagion
198
What is social facilitation?
Enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others
199
What is the definition of conformity?
The tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
200
What is groupthink?
emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking
201
What is a cult?
A group of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause
202
What is the inoculation effect?
An approach to convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct and then debunking them
203
What is the definition of social loafing
a phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups
