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Anthropology 1 > exam 2 > Flashcards

exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what is dominant

A

an allele that is expressed in n organisms phenotype and that simultaneously masks the effects of another allele, if another one is present

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2
Q

what is recessive

A

an allele that is expressed in an organisms phenotype if two copies are present but is masked if the dominant allele is present

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3
Q

what is the phenotype of an individual?

A

physical expression of the genotype; may be influenced by environment

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4
Q

example of phenotype

A

actual physical appearance (tall,short)

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5
Q

example of genotype

A

pair of alleles such as TT, Tt, tt

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6
Q

what is genotype

A

genetic make up of an organism; the combination of alleles for a given gene

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7
Q

what are chromosomes

A

the strand of dna found in the nucleus of eukaryotes that contain hundreds or thousands of genes

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8
Q

what type of observations did mendel make?

A

discrete physical unit was responsible for each characteristic, this unit passed from parent to offspring, and in this way the characteristic was inherited.

garden peas traits did not blend. ex: plants and their offspring were either tall or short. overtime shortplants diminished

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9
Q

what is allele

A

one or more alternative forms of a gene

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10
Q

what is mendelian inheritance

A

basic principles associated with the transmission of genetic material, forming the basis of genetics, including the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment

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11
Q

what is a trait?

A

characteristics ( tall short)

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12
Q

law of segregation

A
  • monohybrid cross
  • each individual has two factors for each trait
  • the factors segregate during the formation of the gametes
  • each gamete contains only one factor from each pair of factors
  • fertilization gives each new individual two factors for each trait
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13
Q

law of independent assortment

A
  • each pair of factors segregates (assorts) independently of the other pairs
  • all possible combinations of factors can occur in the gametes
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14
Q

concept of blending

A

idea that parents of contrasting appearance always produced offspring of intermediate appearance

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15
Q

what are the Two laws that describe the behavior of genes as they are passed from one generation to the next

A

law of segregation and law of independent assortment

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16
Q

when mendel crossed a true breeding violet flowered and a true breeding white flowered plant, the offspring were

A

all violet

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17
Q

when mendel crossed a true breeding tall with a true breeding dwarf plant, all of the f1 generation were tall. therefore we may conclude that the allele for dwarfism in the pea plant is

A

recessive

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18
Q

cytogenetics ( the study of the mechanisms of heredity in the cell ) shows that mendel’s principle of segregation

A

is based on the separation of chromosomes during meiosis

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19
Q

two nontastsers for ptc will have among their offspring

A

nontastsers only

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20
Q

the blending theory is…

A

idea that inherited characteristics of offspring are intermediate between maternal and paternal characteristics

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21
Q

oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis in that oogenesis :

A

leads to sex cells, if fertilized, will contribute mtDNA to the zygote

begins in fetal life

usually produces only one mature ovum at any one time

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22
Q

the genetic information is coded by the sequence of codons. each codon is made up of 3….

A

nucelotides

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23
Q

the nuclear dna molecule controls the manufacture of proteins by the following process:

A

the appropriate code is copied and transported by messenger RNA to the site of protein manufacture

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24
Q

Somatic cells are characterized by all the following

A

each includes a nucleus,

they are used in multiple tissues throughout the body

each contains a complete copy of all organism’s DNA.

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25
Q

The genetic code is based on ….

A

the particular sequence of nucleotides

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26
Q

what is mitosis

A

a body cell and its nucleus divides once and produce two identical cells.

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27
Q

what is meiosis

A

a reproductive cell and its nucleus divide twice and produce four cells- two pairs of identical cells with half the number of chromosomes

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28
Q

what is mendelian inhertiance

A

Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900. These laws were initially controversial.

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29
Q

what is true-breeding

A

A true-breeding organism, sometimes also called a purebred, is an organism that always passes down certain phenotypic traits to its offspring of many generations.

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30
Q

what is a hybrid

A

the offspring of two plants or animals of different species or varieties, such as a mule (a hybrid of a donkey and a horse).

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31
Q

what is recessive

A

relating to or denoting heritable characteristics controlled by genes that are expressed in offspring only when inherited from both parents, i.e., when not masked by a dominant characteristic inherited from one parent.

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32
Q

what is dominant

A

Dominance in genetics is a relationship between alleles of one gene, in which the effect on phenotype of one allele masks the contribution of a second allele at the same locus. The first allele is dominant and the second allele is recessive.

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33
Q

what is principle of segregation

A

the principle, originated by Gregor Mendel, stating that during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent.

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34
Q

what is the principle of independent assortment

A

Law of independent assortment is for polyhybrid Traits i.e. More than one trait,it states that all the different traits in an organism are acquired independent of each other,they are not dependent on a particular trait

Here we are comparing the color and shape of the peas

R -round shape(dominant)

r-wrinkled shape

Y-yellow color (dominant)

y-green color

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35
Q

law of segregation again

A

Law of segregation is for monohybrid inheritance i.e. A single trait.Each parent had two alleles for a particular trait.During gamete production the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that the offspring acquires one factor from each parent which is in accordance to the fact that the offspring will bear only 46 chromosomes (23 from mother and 23 from father)

Here in the Punnett square we are comparing dominant T (tall) and recessive t (short ) trait

So we see 16 different possibilities because color and shape are independent of each other

bigger punnet square with lotso stuffs

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36
Q

what is a trait

A

a distinguishing quality or characteristic, typically one belonging to a person.

a genetically determined characteristic.

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37
Q

what is a locus

A

A locus (plural loci) in genetics is a fixed position on a chromosome, like the position of a gene or a marker (genetic marker). Each chromosome carries many genes; human’s estimated ‘haploid’ protein coding genes are 19,000–20,000, on the 23 different chromosomes.

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38
Q

what is an allele

A

an allele is a variant form of a gene

When the copies of a gene differ from each other, they are known as alleles. A given gene may have multiple different alleles, though only two alleles are present at the gene’s locus in any individual.

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39
Q

what is homozygous

A

having two identical alleles of a particular gene or gene

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40
Q

what is heterozygous

A

having two different alleles of a particular gene or genes.

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41
Q

what is autosomes

A

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
An autosome is a chromosome that is not an allosome (a sex chromosome). … The DNA in autosomes is collectively known as atDNA or auDNA.

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42
Q

what is a sex chromosome

A

a chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds.

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43
Q

What are sex chromosomes? What determines whether a person is male or female

A

X and Y chromosomes; Females have two X chromosomes; males have one X and one Y chromosome

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44
Q

An individual has two sets of chromosomes called homologous chromosomes, having one set from his mother and one from his father. Homologous chromosomes are similar in ___.

A

shape, size, genetic content

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45
Q

What is a homologous chromosome

A

Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs (one from each parent) that are similar in length, gene position, and centromere location. The position of the genes on each homologous chromosome is the same, however, the genes may contain different alleles.

Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure

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46
Q

what is genetic recombination

A

the exchange of genetic material between different organisms which leads to production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent.

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47
Q

what is genetic recombination

A

the process by which the combinations of alleles for different genes in two parental individuals become shuffled into new combinations in offsprings individuals.

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48
Q

what is the human genome project

A

The Human Genome Project was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.

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49
Q

what is the human genome project

A

A research effort undertaken to sequence all of our DNA and locate within it all of the functionally important sequences, such as genes

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50
Q

what is nondisjunction

A

the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.

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51
Q

What is Nondisjunction and how does it occur?

A

If nondisjunction occurs during anaphase II of meiosis II, it means that at least one pair of sister chromatids did not separate. In this scenario, two cells will have the normal haploid number of chromosomes. Additionally, one cell will have an extra chromosome (n + 1) and one will be missing a chromosome (n - 1)

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52
Q

Down Syndrome: trisomy 21

A

It results from one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities in humans, the presence of an extra chromosome 21 in each cell or rarely part of the cells of the body.

Extra copy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is the most common single cause of human birth defects.

usually caused by an error in cell division called “nondisjunction.” Nondisjunction results in an embryo with three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two.

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53
Q

what is a somatic cell

A

any cell of the body except sperm and egg cells. Somatic cells are diploid, meaning that they contain two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. … a mammalian blastula in which some differentiation of cells has occurred.

any cell other than a gamete, has 46 chromosomes, body cells.

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54
Q

what is a gamete

A

A sex cell that contains the haploid of chromosomes
reproductive cells, sperm or egg

A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

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55
Q

meiosis again

A

(genetics) cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

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56
Q

sex cells

A

Gametes- sperm and egg cells. Made by meiosis with ½ the regular number of chromosomes in them.

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57
Q

haploid

A

An organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes

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58
Q

what is a zygote

A

The one cell that is formed when the cell accepts the sperm cell.

The fertilized egg, which is diploid, that results from the union of haploid gametes during fertilization

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

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59
Q

what is codominance

A

Codominance is a form of dominance wherein the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed. This results in offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive. A typical example showing codominance is the ABO blood group system.

60
Q

example of codominance???

A

When two alleles for a trait are equally expressed with neither being recessive or dominant, it creates codominance. Examples of codominance include a person with type AB blood, which means that both the A allele and the B allele are equally expressed.

61
Q

what is diploid

A

(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number

62
Q

Diploid vs. haploid???

A

DIP: (genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number

HAP: (genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes

63
Q

What is Pleiotropy and give an example

A

Pleiotropy refers to the phenomenon in which a single gene controls several distinct, and seemingly unrelated, phenotypic effects.

A classic example of pleiotropy is the human disease PKU (phenylketonuria).

64
Q

what is pleiotrophy

A

Definition:
Determination of more than one phenotype by a single gene pair (Affected by environmental conditions)

genotype + environment ⇒ phenotype -light, temperature, nutrition

Example:
-coat color of Siamese cat
-1 pair of genes for coat color
-warm areas of body-
light color
-cool areas of body-
dark color
-extremities cooler than core so they are darker

-Changing temperature can change color

65
Q

what are linked genes???

A

genes that are on the same chromosome

genes on the same chromosome with other genes; cannot undergo independent assortment and ratio is usually 1:2:1

66
Q

law of independent assortment again lmao

A

the law linked genes dont follow because they are not on separate chromosomes

67
Q

another recombination

A

production of offspring with new combinations of traits from parents

68
Q

what is genetics

A

The scientific study of heredity

69
Q

gamete again

A

specialized cell involved in sexual reproduction

70
Q

truebreedintg again

A

erm used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate

71
Q

zygote =

A

FERTILIZED EGG

72
Q

what are nucleic acids

A

Organic compounds in living organisms that are responsible for passing on hereditary information

73
Q

what is rna

A

The type of nucleic acid that forms from DNA and functions with Ribosomes to form protein molecules

74
Q

what is dna

A

The Nucleic acid that is located primarily in the nucleus

75
Q

2 primary nucleic acids?

A

dna & rna

76
Q

structure of dna =

A

It is a twisted ladder made of molecules

77
Q

unique about dna is that

A

they set a template for themselves

78
Q

unique about rn is that

A

Its base replaces thymine with uricel

79
Q

what is the nucleus

A

The nucleus is the boss of the cell it carries dna and gives out instructions. It is charge of reprodutction and making protein it is double layered. nucleus. The nucleus is the boss of the cell it carries dna it is responsible for reproduction and making protein it also has two layers.

80
Q

where is nucleus

A

centerrr1!!

81
Q

what is cytoplasm

A

jelly like substance inside cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus and in which the organelles are suspended

FUNCTION: fluid that fills the cell and maintains the cell’s shape. Organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm, which can also store chemical substances. The extranuclear dna is in the mitochondria

82
Q

what is a prokaryote

A

single-celled organisms with no nuclear membranes or organelles and with their genetic material as a single strand in the cytoplasm

83
Q

what is the nucleus

A

a membrane bound structure in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material

84
Q

what is eukaryotes

A

multicelled organisms tht have a membrane bound nucleus containing both the genetic material and specialized organisms

85
Q

diploid again

A

a cell that has a full complement of paired chromosomes

86
Q

haploid again

A

cell that has a single set of unpaired chromosomes; half of the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell

87
Q

what is protein synthesis

A

Protein synthesis is the process whereby biological cells generate new proteins; it is balanced by the loss of cellular proteins via degradation or export.

88
Q

what are structural proteins

A

proteins that form an organisms physical attributes

89
Q

what are regulatory proteins

A

proteins involved in the expression of control genes

90
Q

what is recombination

A

the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes from a cross-over event

91
Q

what are haplotypes

A

a group of alleles that tend to be inherited as a unit due to their closely spaced loci on a single chromosome

92
Q

what is mitochondria

A

energy producing (ATP) organelles in eukaryotic cells ; they posses their own independent DNA

93
Q

what are antigens

A

specific proteins, on the surface of cells, that stimulate the immune system’s antibody production

94
Q

what are antibodies

A

molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the presence of foreign substances; they attach to the foreign antigens

95
Q

what are nucelotides

A

building block of dna and rna composed of sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases.

96
Q

what are amino acids

A

organic molecules combined in a specific sequence by the ribosomes to form a protein

97
Q

what is messenger RNA ( mRNA)

A

the molecules that are responsible for making a chemical copy of a gene needed for a specific protein; that is, for the transcription phase of protein synthesis

98
Q

what is codons

A

the sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by mRNA that are coded to produce a specific protein and are transcribed and translated during protein synthesis

99
Q

what is transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

the molecules that are responsible for transporting amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis

100
Q

what is a gene

A

basic unit of inheritence; a sequence of DNA on a chromosome, coded to produce a specific protein

101
Q

what are structural genes

A

genes coded to produce particular products, such as an enzyme or hormone, rather than regulatory proteins

102
Q

what are regulatory genes

A

those genes that determine when structural genes and other regulatory genes are turned on and off for protein synthesis

103
Q

whaT ARE species

A

a group of related organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile, viable offspring

104
Q

what is gene pool

A

all the genetic information in the breeding population

105
Q

what is mutation

A

a random change in a gene or chromosome, creating a new trait that advantageous, deleterious, or neutral in its effects on the organism

106
Q

what is point mutation

A

replacements of a single nitrogen base with another base , which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes

107
Q

spontaneous mutation

A

random changes in the dna that occur during cell division

108
Q

what is induced mutation

A

refers to those mutations in the DNA resulting from exposure to toxic chemicals or to radiation

109
Q

what is gene flow

A

admixture, or the exchange of alleles between 2 populations

110
Q

what is genetic drift

A

the random change in the allele frequency from one generation to the next , with greater effect in small populations

111
Q

what is endogamous

A

refers to a population in which individuals breed only with other members of the population

112
Q

what is exogamous

A

refers to a population in which individuals breed only with nonmembers of their population

113
Q

what is microevolution

A

small scale evolution such as changes in allele frequency, that occurs from one generation to the next

114
Q

what is macroevolution

A

large-scale evolution, such as a speciation event, that occurs after hundreds or thousands of generations

115
Q

what is sickle-cell anemia

A

a genetic blood disease in which the red blood cells become deforemd and sickle-shaped, decreasing their ability to carry oxygen to tissues

116
Q

what are proteins

A

Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another.

117
Q

what is mitochondrial dna

A

Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate

118
Q

what are enzymes

A

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products.

119
Q

what are enzymes

A

proteins that speed up reactions by reducing the activation energy without being consumed in the reaction

120
Q

what is a hemoglobin

A

A protein and the main cytoplasmic component of erythrocytes.
Oxygen carrying component of RBC

121
Q

what is a hemoglobin

A

the protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

122
Q

what are hormones

A

Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers and are part of the endocrine system.

123
Q

what are hormones

A

any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.

124
Q

what is a structural gene

A

a gene that codes for any RNA or protein product other than a regulatory factor (i.e. regulatory protein)

125
Q

what is a structural gene

A

Genes that code for particular polypeptide are called structural genes. (part of an operon)

126
Q

what are regulatory genes

A

Codes for transcription factors that regulate transcription of the operon.

127
Q

what are regulatory genes

A

A regulator gene, regulator, or regulatory gene is a gene involved in controlling the expression of one or more other genes.

128
Q

what are homeotic genes

A

In evolutionary developmental biology, homeotic genes are genes which regulate the development of anatomical structures in various organisms such as echinoderms, insects, mammals, and plants.

129
Q

what are homeotc genes

A

master control genes that regulate groups of other genes that determine what body parts will develop in which locations

130
Q

what are polygenic traits

A

Polygenic traits are those traits that are controlled by more than one gene. Such traits may even be controlled by genes located on entirely different chromosomes. Human height, eye and hair color are examples of polygenic traits. Skin color is another polygenic trait for humans and a variety of other animals.

131
Q

what is abo blood type system

A

The ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of the A and B antigens on erythrocytes.

132
Q

what is reproductive isolation

A

Crosses between an infected population and one free from infection produces a nearly total reproductive isolation between the semi-species. However, if both species are free from the bacteria or both are treated with antibiotics there is no reproductive barrier.

133
Q

define reproductive isolation

A

the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede members of 2 species from interbreeding and producing viable fertile offspring

134
Q

what is a mutagen

A

a mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material, usually DNA, of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause cancer, mutagens are therefore also likely to be carcinogens, although not always necessarily so

135
Q

what is population bottleneck

A

A population bottleneck or genetic bottleneck is a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or human activities

136
Q

what is geographic isolation

A

refers to two population of the same species being separated due to some type of physical barrier. This separation of population occurs when a body of water or land forms and divides a habitat.

137
Q

what is founder principle

A

he conditional probabilities of the frequencies of a set of genes at any future date depend on the initial composition of the founders of the population and have in general no tendency to revert to the composition of the population from which the founders were themselves derived.

138
Q

how many chromosomes are there in a normal human cell?

A

46

139
Q

why do we conduct studies of genetics at the level of the cell

A

cell = basic unit of life for all organisms

140
Q

understand the basic cell structure

A

center = nucleus

red multiple ovals = mitochondria

spaghetti connected to the nucleus = endoplasmic reticulum

wall around cell = cell membrane

141
Q

what is the unit of evolution

A

reproductive population

142
Q

what is the gene pool of a population

A

the sum of all alleles carried by the members of a population

143
Q

what is the largest reproductive population

A

species

144
Q

define evolution

A

a change in the gene pool of a population; it indicates an alteration in the frequency of alleles

145
Q

4 factors that produce and redistribute variation (Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change)

A

mutations

natural selection

genetic drift

geneflow

146
Q

natural selection is a process of a factor that brings

A

about change to the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population

Anthropology 1 (4 decks)

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