Exam 2 Review

Question 1

What is the effect of chronic stress on cortisol levels?

Answer 1

Chronic stress leads to high levels of cortisol, which can damage brain areas like the hippocampus and disrupt mood regulation.

Question 2

Which thyroid condition can contribute to depressive symptoms?

Answer 2

Hypothyroidism.

Question 3

How do inflammatory molecules affect brain function?

Answer 3

Inflammatory molecules (cytokines) can alter neurotransmitter levels and disrupt mood regulation.

Question 4

What neurotransmitters are commonly associated with depression?

Answer 4

• Serotonin
• Dopamine
• Norepinephrine

Question 5

What structural brain changes are often seen in people with depression?

Answer 5

• Reduced size or activity in the prefrontal cortex
• Reduced size in the hippocampus
• Overactivity in the amygdala

Question 6

What psychosocial factor can trigger depression?

Answer 6

Life events such as trauma, loss, or chronic stress.

Question 7

What genetic factor is associated with an increased risk of depression?

Answer 7

Certain genes related to serotonin and stress responses.

Question 8

What is the role of dopamine in bipolar disorder?

Answer 8

High dopamine activity is associated with manic episodes, while low dopamine activity is linked to depressive episodes.

Question 9

What is the significance of serotonin in mood regulation?

Answer 9

Serotonin helps stabilize mood, and low levels may contribute to depressive phases.

Question 10

What is a common brain structure affected in both depression and bipolar disorder?

Answer 10

Hippocampus.

Question 11

What are the goals of treating depression?

Answer 11

• Relieve depressive symptoms
• Restore normal neurotransmitter balance
• Improve functional recovery
• Prevent relapse & recurrence
• Enhance quality of life
• Minimize side effects of treatment
• Provide personalized & holistic care

Question 12

What is the effect of antidepressants on serotonin levels?

Answer 12

Antidepressants like SSRIs increase serotonin levels by preventing its reabsorption into neurons.

Question 13

What is the relationship between norepinephrine levels and depression?

Answer 13

Low norepinephrine is linked to fatigue, lack of motivation, and poor concentration.

Question 14

What is the role of the amygdala in depression?

Answer 14

Overactivity in the amygdala leads to increased fear, sadness, and emotional sensitivity.

Question 15

What structural changes in the brain are linked to chronic stress and depression?

Answer 15

• Hippocampus shrinkage
• Prefrontal cortex atrophy
• Amygdala changes

Question 16

Which neurotransmitter is often depleted in depression and affects motivation?

Answer 16

Dopamine.

Question 17

Fill in the blank: Chronic stress leads to high levels of ________, which can damage brain structures.

Answer 17

cortisol

Question 18

True or False: Genetic factors have no role in the development of bipolar disorder.

Answer 18

False

Question 19

What does increased glutamate contribute to in bipolar disorder?

Answer 19

Manic episodes.

Question 20

What is the impact of antidepressants on neuroplasticity?

Answer 20

Antidepressants increase neuroplasticity, helping the brain adapt and form new connections.

Question 21

What is the effect of chronic inflammation on neurotransmitter levels?

Answer 21

Chronic inflammation is linked to changes in serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate.

Question 22

What is the relationship between the prefrontal cortex and emotional regulation in depression?

Answer 22

Decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex leads to poor emotional control and decision-making.

Question 23

What is neurogenesis?

Answer 23

Growth of new neurons

Neurogenesis is crucial for improving memory and emotional stability.

Question 24

How does depression affect the hippocampus?

Answer 24

Depression shrinks the hippocampus

The hippocampus is essential for memory and mood regulation.

Question 25

What role does BDNF play in the brain?

Answer 25

Restores hippocampal volume and improves memory, resilience to stress, and emotional stability ## Footnote BDNF stands for brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

Question 26

What happens to cortisol levels in chronic stress?

Answer 26

Cortisol levels elevate ## Footnote Elevated cortisol can damage the hippocampus.

Question 27

What effect do antidepressants have on cortisol?

Answer 27

Lower cortisol levels ## Footnote This helps reduce stress-related symptoms like fatigue and anxiety.

Question 28

How do antidepressants impact sleep patterns?

Answer 28

Normalize sleep patterns by stabilizing serotonin and norepinephrine ## Footnote Some antidepressants can improve appetite and sleep.

Question 29

What is cognitive impairment in the context of depression?

Answer 29

Slow thinking, poor concentration, and memory problems ## Footnote These symptoms may persist even after mood improvement.

Question 30

What are possible solutions for cognitive impairment in depression?

Answer 30

* Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) * Cognitive training * Stimulant medications (e.g., modafinil, bupropion)

Question 31

What is anhedonia?

Answer 31

Inability to feel pleasure ## Footnote This condition can persist despite mood improvement.

Question 32

What is the effect of SSRIs on dopamine?

Answer 32

Do not significantly boost dopamine levels ## Footnote Dopamine is crucial for pleasure and reward.

Question 33

What interventions can help with emotional numbness?

Answer 33

* Dose adjustments * Medication switches (e.g., bupropion instead of SSRIs) * Therapy to enhance emotional awareness

Question 34

What are common sleep disturbances associated with depression?

Answer 34

Insomnia or hypersomnia ## Footnote These issues can persist despite mood improvements.

Question 35

What solutions exist for sleep disturbances in depression?

Answer 35

* Adding sedating agents (e.g., mirtazapine, trazodone) * Improving sleep hygiene * Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I)

Question 36

What is the role of the HPA axis in mood disorders?

Answer 36

Regulates stress response and cortisol release ## Footnote Dysregulation can lead to excessive cortisol secretion.

Question 37

What happens to the HPA axis in depression?

Answer 37

Overactivation leads to excessive cortisol secretion ## Footnote Chronic high cortisol damages the hippocampus.

Question 38

What is the relationship between serotonin and mood regulation?

Answer 38

Regulates mood, anxiety, and emotional stability ## Footnote Low serotonin levels are linked to sadness and suicidal thoughts.

Question 39

What is the monoamine hypothesis?

Answer 39

Suggests that monoamines regulate mood and that their depletion leads to depression ## Footnote Key monoamines include serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

Question 40

What are the limitations of the monoamine hypothesis?

Answer 40

* Antidepressants take weeks to improve symptoms * Some patients do not respond to monoamine-based treatments

Question 41

How does norepinephrine affect serotonin release?

Answer 41

Enhances serotonin release through α1-adrenergic receptors ## Footnote This interaction explains the effectiveness of SNRIs.

Question 42

What is the impact of chronic HPA axis dysregulation?

Answer 42

* Neurotoxicity & brain atrophy * Neurotransmitter disruptions * Inflammation & neuroplasticity reduction

Question 43

What is the role of the amygdala in the HPA axis?

Answer 43

Stimulates HPA axis activity by enhancing CRH release ## Footnote An overactive amygdala contributes to excessive stress responses.

Question 44

What neurotransmitter dysfunction is linked to high cortisol?

Answer 44

Serotonin (5-HT) dysfunction ## Footnote High cortisol reduces serotonin activity, increasing feelings of sadness and anxiety.