Exam 2 Review (chapters 5 And 6) Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
Q
What is the resting membrane potential and how is it set?
A
-70mV. It is set by K+ leaving the cell through potassium leakage channels, and K+ being a positive ion leaving the cell causes the inside of the cell to become more negative
2
Q
What would happen if Na+ leakage channels were more numerous or more effective than K+ leakage channels
A
Resting membrane potential would be less negative, possibly even positive
3
Q
First distinct layer of the skin
A
Epidermis
4
Q
Second distinct layer of the skin
A
Dermis
5
Q
Describe the epidermis
A
Epithelial tissue, no blood vessels, small layer
6
Q
Describe the dermis
A
Connective tissue, has blood vessels, large layer
7
Q
Layer that surrounds muscles
A
Hypodermis/superficial fascia
8
Q
What are the functions of the hypodermis/superficial fascia
A
Stores fat, anchor for skin, shock absorber, insulation
9
Q
Most abundant epidermis cells with lots of desmosomes and tight junctions
A
Keratinocytes
10
Q
Spider shape cells that make a pigment important for UV protection
A
Melanocytes
11
Q
Cells that provide an immune function
A
Dendritic cells
12
Q
Cells that sense pain, temperature, and touch
A
Tactile cells
13
Q
Where are keratinocytes found
A
In the epidermis
14
Q
Where are melanocytes found
A
In the epidermis
15
Q
Where are dendritic cells found
A
In the epidermis
16
Q
Where are tactile cells found
A
In the epidermis
17
Q
What are the 5 layers of the epidermis, superficial to deep
A
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum (only thick skin)
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum basale
18
Q
What is the function of the stratum basale
A
Germination
19
Q
Describe the stratum basale
A
Single layer of stem cells that create new cells
20
Q
What kind of cells does the stratum basale give rise to
A
Most specialize into keratinocytes, 10-25% are melanocytes
21
Q
Describe the stratum spinosum
A
Spikes are pre-keratin tonofilaments, lots of dendritic cells, several layers thick
22
Q
Function of stratum spinosum
A
Spikes are anchored to desmosomes to resist tension
23
Q
Describe the stratum granulosum
A
1-5 layers thick, has keratohyaline (keratin precursor) and lamellar (produce glycoside, water resistant)
24
Q
What is keratohyaline
A
The keratin precursor
25
What are lamella
Granules that produce glycolipids for water resistance
26
What is the function of the stratum granulosum
Starts the process of keratinization, prevents water loss from lipids and tight junctions,
27
Describe the stratum lucidum
Only thick skin has the stratum lucidum, looks translucent
28
Describe the stratum corneum
Most superficial layer, 20-30 layers thick, made up of dead, anucleated, keratin-filled cells
29
Most superficial layer of dermis
Papillary layer (“nipple”)
30
Layer underneath papillary layer
Reticular layer
31
Describe the papillary layer
Sensory receptors, blood vessels, loose aereolar connective tissue
32
Describe the reticular layer
Dense irregular connective tissue, makes up 80% of thickness
33
What pigment does melanin provide
Reddish yellow to brown
34
What pigment does carotene provide
Yellow to orange
35
Where does the carotene pigment accumulate
In the corneum
36
What are tonofilaments
Keratin-containing intermediate filaments
37
One of the functions of skin is to produce the vitamin D precursor, which layer is responsible and why
Stratum granulosum, you want active cells
38
Which skin layer releases glycolipid effectively walling them off from nutrients in deeper tissue layers
Stratum granulosum
39
Which is the thickest layer of skin
Stratum corneum
40
Which layer of skin produces all the other layers
Stratum basale
41
Function of Myoepithelial cells around secretory glands
Contract in order to aide in secretion
42
Two sweat glands that secrete through exocytosis
Eccrine and apocrine glands
43
Official term for glands that secrete by exocytosis
Merocrine glands
44
Composition of sweat from eccrine glands
1. 99% water
2. Salt
3. Traces of metabolic waste
45
pH of sweat
4-6
46
Function of eccrine glands
Temperature regulation
47
How abundant are apocrine glands
A couple thousand
48
Here are apocrine glands found
Axillary, rectal, and genital regions
49
What do apocrine glands empty into
Hair follicles
50
Composition of sweat from apocrine glands
1. 99% water
2. Salt
3. Traces of metabolic waste
4. Lipid and protein substances (specific to apocrine glands)
51
When are apocrine glands active
At puberty
52
Function of apocrine glands
Sex scent gland
53
What are the two modified apocrine glands
Ceruminous glands and mammary glands
54
What do ceruminous glands secrete
Ear wax or cerumin
55
What do mammary glands secrete
Milk
56
Type of gland that explodes to release its product
Sebaceous/oil glands
57
Official name for glands that explode to release their product
Halocrine glands
58
Where are sebaceous/oil glands found
Everywhere except thick skin
59
What do sebaceous/oil glands secrete
Oily substance called sebum
60
What forces sebum to the surface
Arrector pili muscles
61
What happens when the arrector pili muscles force sebum to the surface (function of sebum)
Softens and lubricates hair and skin, and is also bacteriacidal
62
When are sebaceous/oil glands more active
During puberty
63
Six functions of the skin
Protection, temperature regulation, blood reservoir, cutaneous sensation, metabolic function, excretion
64
Three categories of skin protection
Chemical, physical, and biological
65
Chemical protection methods of the skin
1. Acid mantle = prevents bacterial growth
2. Defensins = poke holes in bacteria
3. Melanin = UV protection for DNA
66
Physical protection methods of the skin
Corneum = brick and mortar layer, cells are the bricks and glycolipids are the mortar
67
Biological protection methods of the skin
Dendritic cells and macrophages = run the immune responses, both capable of phagocytosis
68
Two types of temperature regulation
Insensible perspiration and sensible perspiration
69
What is insensible perspiration
General perspiration at normal temperatures
70
What is sensible perspiration
Required when it is hot, blood vessels dilate when hot and vasoconstrict once cool
71
Five things that can penetrate the skin
1. Lipid soluble substances
2. oleoresins
3. Organic solvents
4. Salts and heavy metals
5. Selective drugs
72
Example of lipid soluble substance that can penetrate the skin
O2/CO2/fat soluble vitamins and steroids
73
Example of oleoresins that can penetrate the skin
Poison ivy/oak
74
Example of organic solvents that can penetrate the skin
Acetone and paint thinner
75
Example of salts and heavy metals that can penetrate the skin
Lead and Mercury
76
Example of selective drugs that can penetrate the skin
Nitroglycerin
77
How is the skin a blood reservoir
5% of total blood volume held in the skin
78
How is the skin a cutaneous receptor
Has exteroceptors that detect stimuli outside the body
79
Main metabolic function of the skin
Converts cholesterol to vitamin D precursor
80
Excretory function of the skin
Excretes things such as urea, Uric acid, and ammonia through sweat
81
What is the gross anatomy of bone? (2 parts)
External bone is made up of compact bone, and internal bone is made of spongey bone
82
What is spongey bone made of
Trabeculae
83
What fills bones
Marrow
84
What is the outside lining of of compact bone called
Periosteum
85
What is the inside lining of compact bone called
Endosteum
86
Structure of short, irregular, or flat bones
Thin plates of spongey bone (diploe) covered by compact bone
87
5 aspects of long bone structure
Shaft, ends, membrane, metaphyses, and the epiphysial plate/line
88
What is the shaft of a long bone called
Diaphysis
89
What is the Structure of the diaphysis
Compact collar filled with marrow
90
What is the structure of the epiphyses
Compact shell containing spongey bone
91
What membrane lines the outside of the long bone
Periosteum
92
What membrane lines the inside of the long bone
Endosteum
93
What are the metaphyses
The broad part junction between the diaphysis and epiphyses
94
What is the structure of the epiphysial plate
Cartilage area for growth, also called the growth plate
95
How many layers does the periosteum have
2 layers
96
What are the layers of the periosteum
Outer layer - dense irregular connective tissue
Inner layer - osteogenic layer
97
What type of cells are in the periosteum
Osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts
98
What secures the periosteum to the bone
Perforating/Sharpys fibers
99
What is the main function of the endosteum
It is an osteogenic layer
100
5 types of cells in bone
1. Osteoprogenitor (osteogenic) cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteoclasts
4. Osteocytes
5. Bone lining cells
101
Function of osteoprogenitor (osteogenic cells)
Mitotically active stem cells
102
Location of osteoprogenitor (osteogenic) cells
Periosteum and endosteum
103
What do osteogenic cells become
Osteoblasts
104
Function of osteoblasts
Bone forming cells
105
What do osteoblasts secrete
Ostoid = Collagen and Ca+ binding proteins
106
When surrounded by matrix, what do osteoblasts become
Osteocytes
107
What is the function of osteocytes
Monitor and maintain the matrix
108
What are the 3 reasons for osteocytes monitoring and maintaining the matrix (why would there be damage to the matrix)
1. Stress
2. Ca+ needs
3. Injury
109
Function of osteoclasts
Break down bones for normal bone remodeling
110
What do osteoclasts come from
Macrophages
111
What is the ruffled border on osteoclasts
Secretion of enzymes that walls off adjacent cells
112
What is the function of bone lining cells
Lines bone surfaces where remodeling occurs
113
What are the 3 microscopic aspects of bone
1. Osteon
2. Lamellae
3. Canal
114
What are osteons
Structural unit of bone
115
What is the structure of lamellae
Hollow cylinders that are layered and run parallel to long axis of bone, direction of collagen fibers switch with each lamella
116
Two types of canals in bone
Central canal and perforating/volkmans canal
117
What does the central canal contain
Blood vessels and nerves
118
What is the structure of perforating/volkmans canals
Run at right angles and connect to medullary canal with central canal
119
What cell is responsible for the pigment that protects from UV
Melanocytes
120
Epithelial layer that gives rise to all other strata
Basale layer
121
Flared portion of bone between shaft and ends
Metaphyses
122
Structural unit of bone
Osteon
123
Is the hypodermis a layer of the skin
No
124
Two types of lamellae not associated with osteons
Circumferential and interstitial
125
Where are the circumferential lamellae
Around the circumference of the bone
126
Where are the interstitial lamellae
Between osteons
127
Microscopic anatomy of spongey bone
Appears poorly organized and has trabeculae
128
Microscopic anatomy of trabeculae
Forms along lines of stress to help resist tension, no osteons,
129
Structure of trabeculae
Irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi, capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
130
Two chemical compositions of bone
Organic and inorganic
131
Organic composition of bone
Cells, ground substance, and fibers
132
Inorganic composition of bone
Salts (calcium phosphates or hydroxyapatites)
133
What is the function of the inorganic composition of bone
Provide hardness and resistance to compression
134
Ossification/osteogenesis starts from 2 things
Cartilage or fibrous matrix
135
Two types of ossification
Endochondrial and intramembranous
136
What is endochondrial ossification
Ossification where bone forms by replacing cartilage
137
What is intramembranous ossification
Ossification that starts from a fibrous matrix
138
First phase of endochondrial ossification
Mesenchymal cells become committed to becoming chondrocytes
139
Second phase of endochondrial ossification
Mesenchymal cells condense into nodules and differentiate into chondrocytes
140
Third phase of endochondrial ossification
Chondrocytes proliferate rapidly to form bone model, begin to secrete matrix
141
Fourth phase of endochondrial ossification
Chondrocytes hypertrophy and continue to secrete matrix
142
Fifth phase of endochondrial ossification
Blood vessels invade cartilage, chondrocytes die by apoptosis, blood brings in osteoblasts that start replacing cartilage with bone
143
Structure of cartilage
Lots of water in matrix, spring back properties, capable of accommodating cell division
144
Composition of cartilage
Chondrocytes/blasts in lacunae and collagen fibers
145
What is cartilage surrounded by
Perichondrium
146
What is the perichondrium
Collar of connective tissue, specifically dense irregular CT that has blood vessels and nerves
147
Types of cartilage on the skeleton
Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
148
Where is hyaline cartilage found
Articular surfaces (joints), costal areas, respiratory areas (larynx), supporting structural, and nasal structures
149
Where is elastic cartilage found
Ear and epiglottis
150
Where is fibrocartilage found
Discs of knee joints and vertebrae
151
Two types of growth of cartilage
Appositional growth and interstitial growth
152
What is appositional growth of cartilage
Grows from outside to inside, secretes matrix along boundary of existing cartilage
153
What is interstitial growth of cartilage
Grows from inside to outside, cells inside cartilage (deep) secrete matrix in existing cartilage
154
How many functions are there of bone
7
155
Name the 7 functions of bone
1. Framework of support
2. Organ protection
3. Anchorage, levels for muscles
4. Mineral storage, Ca+ and phosphate
5. Hematopoiesis, blood cell formation
6. Triglyceride/fat storage
7. Hormone production, osteocalcium
156
Are bones an organ
Yes
157
What types of tissue are bones made of
Epithelial, CT, muscle tissue, nervous tissue
158
First phase of intramembranous ossification
Ossification center develops in fibrous CT membrane (template), mesenchymal cells cluster, differentiate in osteoblasts
159
Second phase of intramembranous ossification
Osteoblasts secrete osteoid on CT (membrane template) and osteoid becomes calcified (process of adding salts, Ca+, and phosphate)
160
Third phase of intramembranous ossification
Spongey bone is formed, as osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, condensation of external portion, becomes periosteum
161
Fourth phase of intramembranous ossification
Trabeculae are remodeled into compact bone to make “sandwich” and spongey bone is filled with marrow
162
Where does the growth of long bone occur
Epiphysial plate
163
5 zones of the epiphysial plate (from top to bottom)
1. Resting zone
2. Proliferation zone
3. Hypertrophic zone
4. Calcification zone
5. Ossification zone
164
What is happening in the resting zone of the ep. plate
Inactive chondrocytes
165
What is happening in the proliferating zone of the ep. plate
Cell division of chondrocytes
166
What is happening in the hypertrophic zone of the ep. plate
Chondrocytes hypertrophy, get bigger, more volume, lacunae erode leaving empty space
167
What is happening in the calcification zone of the ep. plate
Cartilage is being calcified, chondrocytes die (apoptosis), leave spicules (template of calcified cartilage), blood vessel invasion
168
What is happening in the ossification zone of the ep. plate
Invaded by osteoblasts/osteoclasts, erode then cover by blood vessels
169
When does the growth plate close for females? For males?
Females is 18, males is 21
170
Three hormones that effect bone growth
Growth hormone, thyroid hormone, and estrogen/testosterone
171
Bone remodeling happens for 3 reasons, what are these reasons
Calcium homeostasis, stress, and repair
172
How often is compact bone replaced
Every 10 years
173
How often is spongey bone replaced
Every 5 years
