Exam 2 study guide

Question 1

pros of open-ended questions

Answer 1

can get lots of info this way
can be quantified

Question 2

cons of open-ended questions

Answer 2

hard to analyze/compare responses/more time to analyze

Question 3

forced-choice format

Answer 3

providing options that the participants have to chose from

pro: easy to analyze
con: limited information, may not accurately capture true feelings

Question 3

likert-type scale

Answer 3

given scale reflects degree of agreement, anchored by terms like not at all/agree

pro: not as limiting as forced choice
con: people might interpret scale differently/cultural difference on how people respond (ex. some don’t like to pick extreme answers)

Question 3

semantic differential format

Answer 3

scale anchored by adjectives that rate a certain thing/person/making a decision based on 2 different adjectives

cons: restricted responses

Question 4

leading question

Answer 4

hurts construct validity: not actually capturing people’s true thoughts

ex) how fast do you think the car was going when he smashed into the other car?

Question 4

double-barreled question

Answer 4

combining 2 questions into one, hard to tell

confusing participant, may not get valid answer

ex) do you enjoy swimming and wearing sunscreen?

Question 4

negatively worded question

Answer 4

not clear, confused=not valid response

ex) people who do not drive with a suspended license should never be punished, 1-disagree 5-agree

Question 4

question order

Answer 4

very impactful

ex) ask gender before other questions may impact results -or- asking name before other questions can impact results as well

Question 4

this is an example of what? (2 answers)

Question #3: Is this your favorite class and do you have two legs?
a. Yes
b. No

Answer 4

leading question and double-barreled question

Question 4

advantages of self-reports

Answer 4

people are usually their own best expert

access to thoughts, feelings, and intentions (others only have access to these IF you reveal to them)

definitional truth: the data are true by definition if one is assessing wha people think about themselves (ex. self-esteem, no one can say that your self-esteem is wrong)

cost effective

Question 5

shortcuts: response sets + 2 examples

Answer 5

peoples tendency to respond unrelated to questions

acquiescence (yea-saying)
- saying yes to all questions w/o reading carefully
- threatens construct validity

fence-sitting
- choosing middle/neutral option in scale
- threatens construct validity

Question 6

are respondents’ responses accurate?

Answer 6

sometimes people use shortcuts
trying to look good
self-reporting “more than they know”
self-reporting memories of events
carelessness
rating products (not always accurate)

Question 7

trying to look good

Answer 7

socially desirable responding/faking good
- respond in favorable way
faking bad
- opponent/rebellious adolescent trying to be cool

Question 8

preventing/reducing social desirability bias

Answer 8

keep it anonymous
- not motivated to respond one way or the other, don’t ask any identifying info

identify socially desirable responders

use implicit measures (e.g., Implicit Association Test)
- ppl aren’t aware of what is being assessed

informants’ report
- ask people who know about participants questions about them for accurate assessment

Question 9

informants’ reports

Answer 9

-acquaintances, co-workers, family members
-may be more accurate than self-judgments for extremely desirable or undesirable traits
-large amount of info
-real-world bias
-definitional truth

Question 10

disadvantages of informants’ reports

Answer 10

1. limited behavioral info
2. lack of access to private experience
3. error: more likely to remember behaviors that are extreme, unusual, or emotionally arousing
4. bias
   - recommendation effect (more likely to be positive)
   - prejudice and stereotypes

Question 11

“wouldn’t you agree that your opponent’s policies aren’t entirely ineffective in addressing the current economic challenges?”

the problem with this question is that it is: (2 answers)
a. leading
b. double-barreled
c. negatively worded
d. there is no problem

Answer 11

leading + negatively worded

Question 12

Imagine a research study focused on assessing how employees in a large corporation handle conflicts and their general behavior in the workplace. the study aims to understand the effectiveness of conflict resolution strategies employed by employees.

would you use self-report or informants’ report? why?

Answer 12

informants’: success measurement may be less biased, could collect both to have better assessment

Question 13

these are examples of what?

observing how much people talk
observing hockey moms and dads

Answer 13

observational research

Question 14

observer bias

Answer 14

when observers see what they expect to see

expectations affect perception

Question 15

observer effects

Answer 15

when participants confirm observer expectations

aka expectancy effects

Question 16

rosenthal and jacobson

Answer 16

teacher expectation effects!

(+) expectation of students = increase in performance
(-) expectation of students = didn’t increase performance

Question 17

3 ways to prevent observer bias

Answer 17

training
clear instructions
masked design
- double-blind (both researcher and participant don’t know condition they were assigned to)
- single (one party is aware of condition)

Question 18

reactivity

Answer 18

mere presence changes behavior

Question 19

3 solutions to reactivity

Answer 19

blend in - unobtrusive observations (trying to make yourself less noticeable, i.e. one way mirror) wait it out - wait until participant is comfortable with presence measure the behavior's result - instead of behavior directly!

Question 20

is it ethical for researchers to observe the behaviors of others?

Answer 20

w/o consent in public... yes! may be annoying but as long as you are in public/doesn't effect person being observed but, recording w/o consent is unethical

Question 21

which of the following is an example of observer bias in a study on arm strength and mood? a. a research assistant records the participant as stronger in the happy condition than the sad condition, because that fits the hypotheis b. study participant performs with more strength in the happy mood condition because of subtle, encouraging cues from research assistant c. study participant feels self-conscious in the experiment

Answer 21

a

Question 22

which of the following is an example of observer effects in a study on arm strength and mood? a. a research assistant records the participant as stronger in the happy condition than the sad condition, because that fits the hypotheis b. study participant performs with more strength in the happy mood condition because of subtle, encouraging cues from research assistant c. study participant feels self-conscious in the experiment

Answer 22

b

Question 23

external validity

Answer 23

concerns both samples and settings how generalizable findings are to other settings

Question 24

population / population of interest

Answer 24

pop: whole pop of interest: target pop

Question 25

sample

Answer 25

smaller set of people taken from pop. of interest impossible to recruit all/whole target pop.

Question 26

census

Answer 26

study of every person in pop. of interest

Question 27

biased vs. unbiased samples

Answer 27

biased: unrepresentative sample - not all members have = chance of being included unbiased: representative sample - ex) random calling - each member of pop. have = chance of being included in study

Question 28

convenience sampling

Answer 28

researchers sample easiest people to recruit ex) psych sample pool (like SONA), not representative as all these students need a psych class for major

Question 29

self selection

Answer 29

sampling only those volunteering to participate ex) volunteering to review products online

Question 30

simple random sampling

Answer 30

like picking a name out of a bowl - need good sampling frame/list of all people in pop. of interest

Question 31

cluster sampling

Answer 31

used w/ groups of ppl but groups are arbitrary/not meaningful ... everyone is recruited can be problematic if clusters do have similarities/significantly different from each other

Question 32

multistage sampling

Answer 32

random select people from clusters, not using everyone from each cluster stage 1: random sample of clusters is selected stage 2: select random sample of participants from the selected cluster

Question 33

stratified random sampling

Answer 33

groups are created to specifically represent the pop/ of interest ... groups are created in a meaningful way (ex. race, age, etc.) sample size needs to represent groups of population

Question 34

oversampling

Answer 34

variation of stratified random sampling over represent certain groups on purpose b/c group is too small usually

Question 35

systematic sampling

Answer 35

random select starting point and interval you select people in ex) starting point is #2 and use interval of 3

Question 36

random sampling vs. random assignment

Answer 36

sampling: increases external validity = generalization assignment: used only in experimental designs to assign participants to groups at random - increases internal validity

Question 37

settling for an unrepresentative sample: convenience sampling

Answer 37

if other researchers can replicate as well if internal validity > external validity

Question 38

settling for an unrepresentative sample: purposive sampling

Answer 38

use specific type of person/study a specific group - recruiting is biased

Question 39

settling for an unrepresentative sample: snowballing sampling

Answer 39

asking them to recommend other people they know that the study is observing - not random sample but allows easier access to ppl

Question 40

settling for an unrepresentative sample: quota sampling

Answer 40

identify group/cluster population - need to set target #/quota of recruitment until quota is met

Question 41

when external validity is lower priority with _________ ________ in the real world/research studies

Answer 41

non probability samples

Question 42

in a frequency claim, _______ ________ is a priority

Answer 42

external validity

Question 43

larger samples are not always ______ __________

Answer 43

more representative

Question 44

experimental variables

Answer 44

experiment manipulated variable (IV) measured variable (DV/outcome)

Question 45

conditions

Answer 45

levels of an independent variable

Question 46

control variable

Answer 46

any variable that an experimenter holds constant to not have any potential confounds

Question 47

how do experiments establish covariance?

Answer 47

IVs answer the question, "compared to what?", among three groups: - treatment (one or more treatment conditions) - control group (no treatment condition) - placebo group (separates actual effects from placebo)

Question 48

how do experiments establish temporal precedence?

Answer 48

the cause variable precedes the effect variable - the IV happened *and then* the DV was measured

Question 49

how do experiments establish internal validity?

Answer 49

with confounds!

Question 50

design confound (and what is the problem?)

Answer 50

problem with the design of an experiment systematic variability is the problem, which is just another variable changing with the IV

Question 51

systematic variability

Answer 51

problematic

Question 52

unsystematic variability

Answer 52

inconsistent/random change not a confound but can still make it hard to tell difference between conditions

Question 53

how to reduce systematic variability?

Answer 53

proper experimental design and control

Question 54

selection effect

Answer 54

one level of IV/condition is systematically different from the other level of IV/condition due to participants **choosing** what condition to be in

Question 55

how to avoid selection effect?

Answer 55

random assignment matched groups (matching based on certain characteristics)

Question 56

independent-groups design

Answer 56

aka between-subjects design or between-groups design exposed to one condition/IV level

Question 57

within-groups design

Answer 57

aka within-subjects design exposed to **all** conditions/IV levels

Question 58

Posttest-only design

Answer 58

dependent variable only measured once

Question 59

problem with posttest-only design

Answer 59

don't know if pre-existing differences influenced outcome as DV was only measured at the end!

Question 60

pretest/posttest design

Answer 60

measure DV before **and** after treatment

Question 61

what is the main reason that researchers do experiments? a. to have a more valid study b. to support causal claims c. to generalize to more people d. to collect evidence in the real world e. to be the most scientific

Answer 61

b

Question 62

which of these is a causal claim? a. fifty percent of parents give iPads to grumpy kids b. having mom in the car makes teens safe drivers c. people who bet on final-four games enjoy watching them more

Answer 62

b, makes/causes = answer

Question 63

Lydia criticized my experiment for its terrible internal validity. What did she probably say? a. "you didn't use a within groups design" b. "you didn't use a random assignment" c. "you didn't use a random sample" d. "you didn't use a pretest-posttest design"

Answer 63

B

Question 64

"a study published in the journal Appetite in January suggests, for example, that there is a link between enjoyment of bitter taste and antisocial personality traits. In that study, close to 1,000 Americans were given standard personality and taste-preference questionaries. People who enjoyed foods with bitter notes - such as grapefruit, tonic water, coffee and radishes - were more likely to admit that they enjoyed tormenting people or that they tend to manipulate others to get their way." is this an experimental study?

Answer 64

no, no correlation shown so it can't be an experimental study

Question 65

"imagine you've heard of a politician accepting bribes or of a student stealing library books: How harshly would you judge the offender? According to a 2011 study, that may depend on what you've just tasted: Volunteers who had just been told to take a gulp of an extremely bitter herbal tonic judged various moral transgressions as far more serious than people drinking nothing but water." is this an experimental study?

Answer 65

yes, comparison group and correlation shown

Question 66

type of within-group designs

Answer 66

repeated-measures design - seeing if sharing experience is better than alone concurrent-measures design - exposed to all conditions @ the same time

Question 67

advantages of within-groups designs

Answer 67

1. participants in your groups are equivalent because they are the same participants and serve as their own controls 2. these designs give researchers more power to notice differences between conditions 3. within-groups designs require fewer participants than other designs

Question 68

con of within-groups designs

Answer 68

order effects - when being exposed to one condition affects how participants respond to other conditions might not be practical or possible to counterbalance order experiencing all levels of the independent variable (IV) changes the way participants act (demand characteristics)

Question 69

2 types of order effects

Answer 69

practice effects - when participants do better on 2nd task because of practice or do worse on 2nd task because of fatigue carryover effects - when there's contamination carrying over from 1 condition to another

Question 70

how to avoid order effects

Answer 70

counterbalancing - switch up order so no carryover/practice effect takes place

Question 71

two types of counterbalancing

Answer 71

full counterbalancing - a -->b b --> a - make sure each task is presented at all different times partial counterbalancing - not being tested on exact workings, just know we use it with more than 3 conditions - example: Latin square

Question 72

demand characteristics

Answer 72

when the participant may guess the hypothesis which can influence behavior solution: ask participants purpose of the study at the end, if they guess right you can invalidate their input

Question 73

2 ways to test the construct validity with the independent variable

Answer 73

manipulation check - question included along with IV of whether manipulation worked or not Pilot study -test before study (with smaller sample) to see if study/manipulation works need to be careful as these can lead the participant to reveal hypothesis/meaning of the study

Question 74

2 ways to make sure external validity is good

Answer 74

generalizing to other people generalizing to other situations

Question 75

2 things to ask to make sure statistical validity is good

Answer 75

is the difference statistically significant? how large is the effect

Question 76

most common way to measure effect size

Answer 76

cohen's d

Question 77

three fundamental questions about internal validity

Answer 77

1. were there any design confounds 2. if an independent-groups design was used, did researchers control for selection effects using random assignment or matching? 3. if a within-groups design was used, did researchers control for order effects by counterbalancing?

Question 78

six potential internal validity threats in one-group, pretest/posttest designs

Answer 78

1. maturation threats to internal validity 2. history threats to internal validity 3. regression threats to internal validity 4. attrition threats to internal validity 5. testing threats to internal validity 6. instrumentation threats to internal validity

Question 79

maturation threats

Answer 79

change in behavior that emerges spontaneously over time can be addressed w/ comparison group - if they show maturation effect as well, we know that something else is at play

Question 80

history threat

Answer 80

external factor that systematically effects most if not all people in study - example, go green: could be effected by weather, daylight savings time, etc. history threat is present if change is seen in control variable and IV

Question 81

regression threat

Answer 81

unusually high or low in measurement when compared to regular average, so therefore next time it is measured the score will be closer to regular average

Question 82

attrition threat

Answer 82

only problematic when it is systematic (when certain groups of participants are dropping out due to characteristics related to the variables being studied) solution: don't include data of people who dropped out, no matter the reason

Question 83

testing threat

Answer 83

when participants' responses on a posttest measure are influenced by their exposure to the pretest measure (similar to practice effect!) solution: add comparison group, create a different measure, or don't use pretest/posttest, only posttest only design

Question 84

instrumentation threat

Answer 84

changes in the instrument/observers which may produce changes in the outcome solution: posttest only design and make sure posttest and pretest measures are =

Question 85

three potential internal validity threats in any study

Answer 85

observer bias demand characteristics placebo effects

Question 86

you have 3 conditions: placebo group, control and IV. if the control group doesn't change but both placebo and IV do change, what can we infer?

Answer 86

there is a placebo effect!

Question 87

reasons why the IV doesn't make a difference/null findings

Answer 87

not enough between-groups difference within-groups variability obscured the group differences (too much differences within group) there really is no difference!

Question 88

4 reasons why there isn't enough between-group difference and solution

Answer 88

weak manipulations - not enough manipulation insensitive measures - not specific enough categories ceiling and floor effects - ceiling - too many correct answers/scores higher across conditions - floor - scores too low across conditions/too many wrong answers design confound acting in reverse solution: manipulation check - assess construct validity of IV, make sure manipulation works

Question 89

confounds usually threaten _____ ______, but can also apply to ___ _____

Answer 89

internal validity; null effects

Question 90

3 reasons why within-groups variability obscured the group differences

Answer 90

measurement error - any factor that can inflate or deflate a person's true score on the DV - more problematic with a small sample - solutions: use reliable measurements, measure more instances/use larger sample individual differences - spread out scores within each group - solution: change the design to a within-groups or matched groups design - add more participants situation noise - any kind of external distraction that could cause variability within-groups that obscure between-groups differences - solution: control surroundings of experiment

Question 91

another name for the three solutions to why within-groups variability obscured the group differences

Answer 91

power

Question 92

power

Answer 92

the likelihood that a study will yield a statistically significant result when the IV really has an effect studies with a lot of power are more likely to detect true differences

Question 93

higher power in a study can lead to findings of ...

Answer 93

smaller differences

Question 94

how to increase power

Answer 94

using large sample size use reliable/valid measurement strong manipulation

Question 95

file drawer problem/publication bias

Answer 95

significant findings will be published over lower significant findings

Question 96

Which of the following is not true about self reports? a) Children’s self reports have been shown to be inaccurate. b) People may self report more than they know. c) People may answer questions in order to seem worse than they really are. d) People are usually their best expert

Answer 96

a

Question 97

Which one of the following is a means of controlling for observer bias? a) Waiting for the participants to become used to the observer. b) Using unobtrusive observations. c) Making sure the observer does not know key aspects of the study, including the experimental conditions or hypotheses. d) Measuring physical traces of behavior rather than observing behavior directly.

Answer 97

c

Question 98

The following item appears on a survey: “Was your cell phone purchased within the last two years and have you downloaded the most recent updates?” What is the biggest problem with this wording? a) It is a double-barreled question. b) It is not on a Likert scale. c) It involves negative wording. d) It is a leading question.

Answer 98

a

Question 99

Dr. James is doing a study to investigate the prevalence of bipolar disorder among people in young adulthood. Which of the following is most important to their study? a) Making sure their study has high internal validity. b) Finding their sample through probability sampling. c) Using snowballing sampling. d) Using random assignment.

Answer 99

b

Question 100

Which of the following samples is most likely to generalize to its population of interest? a) A quota sample of 120. b) A convenience sample of 12,000. c) A stratified random sample of 120. d) A self-selected sample of 120,000.

Answer 100

c

Question 101

A PHD student, Mary, designed a study to investigate the effect of high school start times on adolescent mental health. She intends to divide students at a randomly selected high school into two groups, the first group will have school start at 8 am and the second group will have school start at 10 am. The high school students would be allowed to choose which start time they wanted (either 8 am or 10 am). Mary intends to do a pretest/posttest design. Mary’s PHD advisor expressed concern at this design and advised her to alter her study. Which of the following is the suggestion the PHD advisor most likely gave to Mary? a) None of the above. b) Randomly assign the students into one of the two groups. c) Use a posttest only design. d) Create another group that doesn’t go to school at all.

Answer 101

b

Question 102

Darrin reads a story reporting that students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges. He wonders if this means going to a private college causes you to have a higher GPA; if so, he’ll go to a private college! Applying the three causal criteria, Darrin knows there is covariance here. He also knows there is temporal precedence because you choose a college first, and then you get your GPA. Which of the following questions would help Darrin ask about the third criterion, internal validity? a) How did they decide what qualifies a college as private or public? b) Is the link between private college and high grades the same for both men and women? c) Could there be a restriction of range? d) Is there some other reason these two are related? Maybe students from higher SES are more likely to go to private colleges, and they are more likely to get better grades.

Answer 102

d

Question 103

Max ran an experiment to examined the impact of hand warmth on perceived friendliness. He asked people to shake hands with an experimenter and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with the experimenter either after the experimenter cooled their hand with cold water, or warmed their hand with warm water. What type of design is Max’s experiment? a) Repeated-measures design. b) Posttest-only design. c) Pretest/posttest design. d) Concurrent-measures design

Answer 103

b

Question 104

Kate and Kevin are a pair of twins involved in a longitudinal twin study looking at the development of self-concept in twins from when they are infants to adolescents. They were in the study from when they were 10 months to 3 years old but their parents just moved to Germany so they had to drop out of the study. Which of the following is true? a) This is not an example of attrition threat. b) This is a threat to the study’s external validity. c) This is a possible design confound. d) This is an example of attrition threat.

Answer 104

a

Question 105

Dr. Banks tests to see how many training sessions it takes for dogs to learn to “Sit and stay.” She randomly assigns 60 dogs to two reward conditions: one is miniature hot dogs, the other is small pieces of steak. Surprisingly, she finds the dogs in each group learn “Sit and stay” in about the same number of sessions. Given the design of her study, what is the most likely explanation for this null effect? a) She didn’t use a manipulation check. b) She used too many dogs. c) There were too many individual differences among the dogs. d) The dogs love both treats (her reward manipulation has a ceiling effect)

Answer 105

d

Question 106

The “Go-Green” Experiment assesses if turning off the lights in the dorm is an effective way to reduce energy usage. The results indicated a decrease in electricity usage. However, a researcher stated that this could have been due to the recent summer break that had occurred. What type of threat is this to internal validity? a) History threat. b) Maturation threat. c) Regression threat. d) Attrition threat.

Answer 106

a

Question 107

A researcher’s population of interest is New York City dog owners. Which of the following samples is most likely to generalize to this population of interest? a) A sample of 50 dog owners visiting a dog-friendly New York City park. b) A sample of 45 dog owners visiting a veterinarian in the New York City area. c) A sample of 50 dog owners selected at random from New York City pet registration records. d) A sample of 25 dog owners who visit New York City's ASPCA website.

Answer 107

c

Question 108

When people are using an acquiescent response set they are: a. Trying to give the responses they think the researcher wants to hear. b. Misrepresenting their views to appear more socially acceptable. c. Giving the same, neutral answer to each question. d. Tending to agree with every item, no matter what it says.

Answer 108

d

Question 109

In which of the following situations do people most accurately answer survey questions? (2 answers) a. When they are describing the reasons for their own behavior. b. When they are describing what happened to them, especially after important events. c. When they are describing their subjective experience; how they personally feel about something. d. People almost never answer survey questions accurately.

Answer 109

b, c

Question 110

Which of the following makes it more likely that behavioral observations will have good interrater reliability? a. A masked study design b. A clear codebook c. Using naive, untrained coders d. Open-ended responses

Answer 110

b

Question 111

Which one of the following is a means of controlling for observer bias? a. Using unobtrusive observations. b. Waiting for the participants to become used to the observer. c. Making sure the observer does not know the study’s hypotheses. d. Measuring physical traces of behavior rather than observing behavior directly.

Answer 111

c

Question 112

Which of the following is a way of preventing reactivity? a. Waiting for the participants to become used to the observer. b. Making sure the observers do not know the study’s hypotheses. c. Making sure the observer uses a clear codebook. d. Ensuring the observers have good interrater reliability.

Answer 112

a

Question 113

Which of the following four terms is not synonymous with the others? a. Generalizable sample b. Externally valid sample c. Representative sample d. Biased sample

Answer 113

d

Question 114

A researcher’s population of interest is New York City dog owners. Which of the following samples is most likely to generalize to this population of interest? a. A sample of 25 dog owners visiting dog-friendly New York City parks. b. A sample of 25 dog owners who have appointments for their dogs at veterinarians in the New York City area. c. A sample of 25 dog owners selected at random from New York City pet registration records. d. A sample of 25 dog owners who visit New York City’s ASPCA website.

Answer 114

c

Question 115

Externally valid samples are more important for some research questions than for others. For which of the following research questions will it be most important to use an externally valid sampling technique? a. Estimating the proportion of U.S. teens who are depressed. b. Testing the association between depression and illegal drug use in U.S. teens. c. Testing the effectiveness of support groups for teens with depression.

Answer 115

a

Question 116

Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person and used the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with her either after she had cooled her hands under cold water or after she had warmed her hands under warm water. Max’s results found that people rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm than when they were cold. Why does Max’s experiment satisfy the causal criterion of temporal precedence? a. Because Max found a difference in rated friendliness between the two conditions, cold hands and warm hands. b. Because the participants shook the experimenter’s hand before rating her friendliness. c. Because the experimenter acted the same in all conditions, except having cold or warm hands. d. Because Max randomly assigned people to the warm hands or cold hands condition.

Answer 116

b

Question 117

Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person and used the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with her either after she had cooled her hands under cold water or after she had warmed her hands under warm water. Max’s results found that people rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm than when they were cold. In Max’s experiment, what was a control variable? a. The participants’ rating of the friendliness of the experimenter. b. The temperature of the experimenter’s hands (warm or cold). c. The gender of the students in the study. d. The standard greeting the experimenter used while shaking hands.

Answer 117

d

Question 118

Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person and used the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with her either after she had cooled her hands under cold water or after she had warmed her hands under warm water. Max’s results found that people rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm than when they were cold. What type of design is Max’s experiment? a. Posttest-only design b. Pretest/posttest design c. Concurrent-measures design d. Repeated-measures design

Answer 118

a

Question 119

Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person and used the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with her either after she had cooled her hands under cold water or after she had warmed her hands under warm water. Max’s results found that people rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm than when they were cold. Max randomly assigned people to shake hands either with the “warm hands” experimenter or the “cold hands” experimenter. Why did he randomly assign participants? a. Because he had a within-groups design. b. Because he wanted to avoid selection effects. c. Because he wanted to avoid an order effect. d. Because he wanted to generalize the results to the population of students at his university.

Answer 119

b

Question 120

Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter’s friendliness using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person and used the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to shake hands with her either after she had cooled her hands under cold water or after she had warmed her hands under warm water. Max’s results found that people rated the experimenter as friendlier when her hands were warm than when they were cold. Which of the following questions would you use to interrogate the construct validity of Max’s experiment? a. How large is the effect size comparing the rated friendliness of the warm hands and cold hands conditions? b. How well did Max’s “experimenter friendliness” rating capture participants’ actual impressions of the experimenter? c. Were there any confounds in the experiment? d. Can we generalize the results from Max’s friend to other experimenters with whom people might shake hands?

Answer 120

b

Question 121

Dr. Weber conducted a long-term study in which people were tested on happiness, asked to make two new friends, and then tested on happiness 1 month later. He noticed that six of the most introverted people dropped out by the last session. Therefore, his study might have which of the following internal validity threats? a. Attrition b. Maturation c. Selection d. Regression

Answer 121

a

Question 122

How is a testing threat to internal validity different from an instrumentation threat? a. A testing threat can be prevented with random assignment; an instrumentation threat cannot. b. A testing threat applies only to within-groups designs; an instrumentation threat applies to any type of study design. c. A testing threat can be prevented with a double-blind study; an instrumentation threat can be prevented with a placebo control. d. A testing threat refers to a change in the participants over time; an instrumentation threat refers to a change in the measuring instrument over time.

Answer 122

d

Question 123

A regression threat applies especially: a. When there are two groups in the study: an experimental group and a control group. b. When the researcher recruits a sample whose average is extremely low or high at pretest. c. In a posttest-only design. d. When there is a small sample in the study.

Answer 123

b

Question 124

Dr. Banks modifies her design and conducts a second study. She uses the same number of dogs and the same design, except now she rewards one group of dogs with miniature hot dogs and another group with pieces of apple. She finds a big difference, with the hot-dogs group learning the command faster. Dr. Banks avoided a null result this time because her design: a. Increased the between-groups variability. b. Decreased the within-groups variability. c. Improved the study’s internal validity.

Answer 124

a

Question 125

When a study has a large number of participants and a small amount of unsystematic variability (low measurement error, low levels of situation noise), then it has a lot of: a. Internal validity b. Manipulation checks c. Dependent variables d. Power and precision

Answer 125

d