Exam 3 Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
Strategies to reduce loss of biodiversity in Canada and internationally
A
mitigating against climate change
informing people of effect of their actions on the environment
2
Q
system planning
A
Divides Canada into 39 physiographic regions that represent Canada’s natural heritage
Provinces have similar system plan = 486 natural regions
Reduces uncertainty in distribution of protected areas
3
Q
protected areas
A
“A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature values”
Areas are restricted from development to protect the environment
4
Q
what do protected areas include
A
Ecological reserves, national parks, provincial parks, wilderness areas, marine conservation areas, wildlife sanctuaries, private reserves, tribal parks
5
Q
strict nature reserve
A
Protected area managed to protect biodiversity. Human use is strictly controlled and limited
6
Q
wilderness areas
A
Large, unchanged or slightly modified areas with natural character. No humans living there. Preservation of natural condition
7
Q
national park
A
Large natural or almost natural area to protect ecological processes and species/ecosystems that are characteristic of the area. Used for scientific study, education, recreation and visitors
8
Q
natural monument or feature
A
Areas that protect a landform, sea mount or submarine cavern, geological feature (e.g. a cave)
9
Q
habitat/species management area
A
Protection of a particular species or habitat; often requires direct management to ensure species thrives
10
Q
protected landscape or seascape
A
Area where people and nature over time has produced a distinct ecological or cultural area
11
Q
protected areas with sustainable use of natural resources
A
Areas with conservation of ecosystem and habitats with cultural value and traditional natural resources management. Some low-level use of natural resources
12
Q
Why are we seeing rapid growth of protected areas?
A
- Realization that rate of biodiversity loss is a problem: E.g endangered wildlife in Canada in 1990 was 194 species at risk; in 2014, it is over 700
- Awareness of links between environmental and social health: Ecosystem collapse = economic collapse
- Realization of the value of ecosystem services:
e.g. Constanza et al. 1997 estimate $33 trillion per year - Evidence for the effectiveness of protected areas to reduce environmental degradation
13
Q
What do protected areas give us?
A
maintenance
repopulation
environmental processes
retaining undisturbed land
14
Q
ecological integrity
A
“A condition that is determined to be characteristic of its natural region and likely to persist, including abiotic components and the composition and abundance of native species and biological communities, rates of change and supporting processes”
15
Q
external stresses
A
Residential development, resource extraction, ecosystem fragmentation, invasive species, climate change
16
Q
UNESCO Biosphere Reserves: Ecosystem Approach to Management.
What is management based on 3 functions?
A
- Conservation – Provides contribution to conservation of land surfaces, ecosystems, species, and genetic variations
- Development – Fosters economic development that benefits people but is also ecologically sustainable
- Logistic – Support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange
17
Q
UNESCO Biosphere Reserves: Ecosystem Approach to Management.
What are the 3 functions of conservation across zones?
A
- Core Zone: Strict protection, little human impact; used for monitoring and biodiversity.
- Buffer Zone: Areas surrounding core – low impact activities only, e.g. research, education, recreation
- Transition Zone: Outer zone with sustainable resource use by local communities
18
Q
What are 6 aspects of parks management?
A
tourism
vehicles and travel
wildlife
pollution and trash
ideas about wild spaces
increased awareness
19
Q
parks management: tourism
A
- Impacts on fish and wildlife populations through hunting and fishing
- Careful management through licensing required
- Indirect impacts can be unexpected if change predator-prey dynamics
- 1988 protection of ecology became top priority
20
Q
parks management: vehicles and travel
A
- Impacts to habitat due to mechanized and non- mechanized recreation
- Some habitats are much more sensitive than others (Deserts? Streams? Lakes?)
- all-terrain vehicles, dirt bikes and off-road vehicles, but also mountain biking, hiking, etc.
21
Q
parks management: wildlife
A
- Wildlife Disturbance
- More use = more direct disturbance
- Sights, odors, noise
- Affect nesting / breeding / feeding animals, affects population
22
Q
parks management: pollution and trash
A
- Pollution
- Pollutants to aquatic environments can be important in otherwise pristine ecosystems (especially with small streams)
- Dish soap, greywater, nutrients, pathogens, exhaust from boats
23
Q
parks management: ideas about wild spaces
A
- Increased access to wild spaces
- Growing networks of access roads and recreational trails can increase visitation to previously undisturbed areas
24
Q
parks management: increased awareness
A
- Increased Awareness
- More knowledge of plants, animals, and ecosystems
- People are interested, engaged
- More interested in management
- More aware of challenges facing management
25
visiting "natural areas", parks and outdoors is critical for management (3)
Visitors learn about environment
Visitors finance environmental management,
protection
Visitors provide local economic benefits
26
visitors management
regulation of visitor behavior, civic action through community support, creating awareness about desirable and undesirable activities
27
1988 amendment to 1930 National Park Act
ecological integrity is first priority over park zoning, visitor use; strengthening accountability of park
28
1995 revised National Park Policy
Policy = direction to govern but not enforceable by law; revised policy to emphasize ecosystem-based management, creation of different zones (Zone I – Special preservation; Zone II – Wilderness)
29
1998 Parks Canada Agency Act
Increased fiscal responsibility of Feds→reduced public funding for Parks, layoffs, privatization = 25% decline in Parks revenue from 1995-2000
Ecological Integrity Panel→look at development pressures in Canada’s national parks
30
2000 National Parks Act
Also included greater detail of management plans: Long-term ecological vision & integrity indicators, reduced dev’t...
31
2002 National Marine Conservation Areas Act
Developed system of NMCAs (National Marine Conservation Areas), focus on ecologically sustainable use
32
1994 – Grumbine: presented ‘ecological view of ecosystem-based management’
“Ecosystem management integrates scientific knowledge of ecological relationships within a complex socio-political and values framework toward the general goal of protecting native ecosystem integrity over the long term”
Used a boundary thinking approach: First half of 20th C, parks had boundaries→No consideration of flow of animals, plants, and other influencing factors (e.g. pollution)
Later, the idea that parks didn’t really have boundaries but spheres of influence that had variable influence on parks and ecosystem boundaries, health
Island biogeography: Small protected ‘islands’ not able to support as many species
33
water resources
Water is critical for life on earth
All biological processes take place in a fluid medium
Demand for freshwater is greater now than any previous time due to growth of global population
34
water governance
The processes and institutions that allow societies to organise themselves to make decisions about water and to take actions that will affect water.
35
Responsibility for water shared by Federal Government and 10 provinces (Territories also include Aboriginal governments). identify federal, provincial, and municipal responsibilities.
Federal: Fisheries, navigation, water pollution, cross-boundary water, Aboriginal peoples, water on federal lands
Provincial: Water management within province; Feds and province share agricultural water use.
Municipal: Local water use, land use planning, supply, wastewater
36
runoff
highly variable each year and is considered
to be renewable
37
we have a lot of water because:
1. A few big lakes, many small lakes
2. A cool climate
3. Low evaporation of water (PET
38
renewable supply
Proportion of precipitation that provides excess runoff and replenishment of groundwater
39
world resource institute definition
“Salt-free water that is fully replaced every year through rain and snow that falls on continents and islands and flows through rivers and streams to the sea”
40
water supply
is a better indicator of how much water we can use vs. simply the volume of water
41
precipitation and runoff vary: (space-time continuum)
Temporally, between years and within years (e.g. seasons→snow accumulation, melt)
Spatially
Type of precipitation
Ecosystems are well adapted to variability... Human civilizations are not well adapted
42
stationarity
Based on statistics: Planners assume that the future will be similar to the past.
43
death of stationarity
Past will no longer be reliable predictor of the future. Increased uncertainty, more difficult water management.
44
given that water is not at the right place at the right time:
significant modifications: store, divert, modify flows
45
water is diverted to:
a) Increase supply for a community/region→St Mary Irrigation District
b) Protection from floods OR to drain lands
c) Enhance river for movement of ships, other materials
d) Combine flow for hydroelectric power generation→Major use in Canada
46
water export to drier places?
US Southwest→significant development, but also significant water scarcity.
We have pipelines, but why not move/sell our water? What are the pros and cons?
Pros:
* Water is just another resources with value?→Make a lot of money from water
* Many jobs, substantial income, movement of water to drier parts of Canada
Cons:
* Scale and magnitude would be massive = risk and uncertainty
* Once available, no stopping water movement to US→dependence
* Irreversible environmental damage
47
eutrophication
Input of phosphorous and other nutrients from point sources, runoff.
48
what happens because of eutrophication?
Increases algae and other plants, reduces oxygen and sunlight, reduces dissolved oxygen
Degrades habitat for fish and other organisms
Also a problem for humans: Groundwater contaminants, especially in rural environments
Climate change and reduced water supply also reducing water quality with increased pollution
49
water quality
Measured based on an index of ability of water to protect life
50
biggest detriments of water quality include:
* Poorly treated municipal waste
* Industrial effluent
* Agricultural fertilizer runoff
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
51
for a given area, drainage basins are the source of:
1. water
2. aquatic organisms
3. sediment
4. pollutants
5. pathogens
52
watershed management
Study of watersheds and the distribution of the resources they contain
53
ecological functions of the watershed include:
1. Water Supply
2. Water Quality
3. Drainage and stormwater runoff (both urban and whole-watershed)
4. Water rights and Water use planning
54
watersheds and adaptive management
Watersheds are complex systems
Amenable to Adaptive Management
Integration is sometimes necessary, but can become expensive and unwieldy
Regional problem (e.g. flood mitigation) vs. local problem (bridge installation)
55
how can coal weights / volumes be expressed?
‘raw’ (RMT- Raw Metric Tonne)
‘clean’ (CMT – Clean Metric Tonne)
56
coal processing waste water
* Waste from CPP added to ‘saturated backfill zone’.
* Temporary storage between CPP and natural environment
* Assumes clean ‘treated’ water can be returned to creeks; i.e. Blairmore
57
water is pumped from the ground and diverted. It is stored in:
sediment / release ponds
surge ponds
saturated backfill / treatment ponds
58
What is Global Environmental Change (GEC)?
Large scale, global environmental hazards to human health
59
What are some examples of Global Environmental Change (GEC)?
climate change
stratospheric ozone depletion
changes in ecosystems due to loss of biodiversity
changes in hydrological systems, and supplies of fresh water
land degradation
urbanization
stresses on food systems.
60
The biogeophysical systems require stability of life-supporting systems. (T/F)
True
61
What are some examples of life supporting systems?
the water cycle
food chains
food growth - dependent on weather/climate
soils and nutrients in the soils
the 4 spheres of geography
62
Disruption of these biogeophysical systems is increasing the degree to which the planet can support human (and other) life. (T/F)
False
Disruption of these biogeophysical systems is reducing the degree to which the planet can support human (and other) life.
63
What are some examples environmental change and hazards to human health?
extreme weather
increase in temperature
reduced habitat continuity
organic and inorganic pollution
64
Managers will need to adjust management strategies to account for Global Environmental Change (GEC). (T/F)
True
65
How will managers need to adjust management strategies to account for Global Environmental Change (GEC)?
Financial and Governmental agencies increasingly need to manage their policies to account for GEC.
Can no longer depend on stationarity!
66
Joseph Fourier in 1824
Earth warms due to inputs of energy
67
Louis Agassiz (1837)
Climate varies
68
Svante Arrhenius (1898)
doubling of CO2 = Increase in Earth’s temperature
calculated that a doubling of CO2 in atmosphere would increase earth’s temperature by 5-6C.
69
How much is the planet heating?
0.6C over the last century.
70
Where is warming greatest?
The warming is greater over land than water and is greatest over polar regions.
71
why are the effect of climate change complex and uncertain?
Complexity occurs because we do not understand the significance of these changes --> requires knowledge about science and societies.
72
Give a brief overview of the greenhouse effect.
1. Sunlight passes through the atmosphere and warms the surface of the Earth
2. infrared radiation is given off by the Earth
3. most escapes to outer space and cools the Earth
4. but some IR is trapped by gases in the air, thus reducing the cooling
- Visible light passes through atmosphere
- Absorbed by surface, re-emitted as infrared
- Thermal radiation from planet surface absorbed by atmospheric gases, re-radiated back in all directions
- Much of the energy radiated back toward planet, increasing surface temperatures beyond expected for surface heating
73
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are variable gases and are able to absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.
74
residence time
Time in atmosphere = removal time or residence time
75
outline 4 greenhouse gases
1. Water (36-70%) *most of the GH effect
2. CO2 (9-26%) *removal time of CO2 is slow, 50-100 Y
3. Methane (4-9%) *high radiative forcing
4. Ozone (3-7%) *highly variable
76
how many different atoms do GHGs usually have?
Most gases with two or more different atoms (e.g., CO) are GHGs
77
what is the biggest influence on global warming?
the biggest influence on global warming is the burning of fossil fuels because this takes the C that was underground and puts it into the atmosphere as CO2. CH4 is even more potent at trapping heat than CO2, but breaks down more quickly in air. CH4 comes from agriculture (cattle and dairy farming), gas leaks from pipelines, wetlands, decaying food in landfills.
78
what does the Keeling Curve illustrate?
The Keeling Curve (Charles David Keeling) illustrates seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 uptake (causing atmospheric CO2 decline) by vegetation during the growing season for photosynthesis and productivity, and reduced uptake following senescence (causing peak in atmospheric CO2).
79
what do climate change model projections provide us?
Climate change model projections provide a range of scenarios or predictions.
Historic trends to now are amazingly accurate but inter-annual variability is complex; predicting the future is difficult, but if the past is a predictor of the future, then models are doing a good job.
80
what are the temperature increases in 21st century projected to be?
- Lowest emissions scenario: 0.3 – 1.7C increase
- Highest emissions scenario: 2.6 – 4.8C increase
81
The ocean is an enormous heat sink and affects many aspects including:
Currents
Water temperature at surface
Water chemistry
Acidification
82
what is the heat capacity of water in relation to air?
Heat capacity of water ~ 4.2X that of air
83
what is the scientific evidence related to climate change? (7 points)
1. World has been warming
IPCC --> each of previous decades warmer than decades prior
2. Greenhouse gas emissions have been rising
Higher than in the past 800,000 years due to economic and population growth (Keeling Curve)
3. Glaciers have lost more than they have gained --> since the 1980’s
4. Reduced snow cover, earlier spring melt of ice on rivers and lakes
5. Decline in area of sea ice --> losses greatest in the fall
6. Changes in permafrost temperature --> warming and thawing
… Changing permafrost and peatland wetlands are major store of C --> and a potential tipping point for the global climate system (Lenton 2008)
7. Increase in mean sea level --> 0.19 m on average since 1901
84
why is permafrost concerning?
Permafrost is concerning because it contains
thousands of years of C so when it thaws it releases C into the atmosphere.
85
define permafrost
Permafrost: Ground that remains frozen for more than 2 or more consecutive years; contains C slowly sequestered from the atmosphere over the last 3000-10,000 years. A massive store of C over ~40% of Canada.
86
how can GEC potentially influence ecosystem processes?
Increase in global average temperature
Increase in the frequency of extreme weather events
Decreased or increased precipitation
Episodes of cold weather are expected to decrease – increase in the number of frost-free days
Changes in growing season
87
In perturbations to ecological systems, there will be ‘winners’ and ‘losers’. give some examples of 'winners'.
Certain bacteria in the ocean. They take up oxygen and can be problematic.
Bacteria/diseases being released form ice melt
Pine beetles and insects that defoliate trees. They are able to survive the winters.
88
In perturbations to ecological systems, there will be ‘winners’ and ‘losers’. give some examples of 'losers'.
Specialists because their habitats are changing
Wetlands
Polar bears – their habitats are impacted
89
where will climate change be most strongly felt?
Climate (temperature) change will be most strongly felt in northern regions
90
fragmentation
increased discontinuity in the habitat of a species
91
habitat area
determines how many animal and plant species live there, and how large the populations are
92
perturbations
Perturbations can dramatically affect populations in small areas (large populations can easily readjust after disturbance)
93
rescue effect
Small populations can be ‘rescued’ by immigrants from adjacent populations (prevented in fragmented landscapes)
94
Resources management difficulties for future generations
Risks are much worse in the long-run
Climate in 25-30 years will likely resemble todays, but it will steadily get warmer
95
What could we expect to happen?
Heavier rains, drier in between periods --> more intense, wide-spread wildfires
Coastal flooding more frequent, more intense
Longer term: Climate could destabilize governments… competition & conflict
Could happen in 10s to 100s or even 1000 years
96
What are some ideas for a “Best Case Scenario”?
Earth is less sensitive than currently believed
Plants and animals adapt
Human societies develop greater political will-power
Technological breakthroughs
97
Supreme court ruled that carbon pricing is constitutional → Ensures a price on C to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. What is the reason for this?
Climate change is of national concern and a “...grave threat to the future of humanity” therefore requires a coordinated national effort
Falls within the Peace, Order and Good Governance (POGG) clause
98
The Carbon Tax is Constitutional – What does that mean?
Strong government is required to implement strategies of national importance: Peace, Order and Good Governance Clause
Why not allow provinces to implement this? → drifting pollution and shifting 4- year political terms = stagnation
99
Provinces and territories can create their own pricing structure, however (3 points):
Must meet Paris Climate Accord commitments
$10 tax on every tonne of C produced (increasing each year to $50)
Provinces implement plans to which the federal tax is applied if they refuse to act
100
What is the International Climate Change Bodies and Organizations (IPCC)
IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Reports provide synthesis of agreement in the scientific community including assessments, implications, potential future risks and options for adaptation/mitigation
Reports are for policy but not prescriptive
Also includes a variety of task forces
101
What is UNFCCC? Describe it.
UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
- A Treaty signed by 154 countries at the UN Conference (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992
- Led the Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997; reductions of GHGs began towards stable levels in 2005 to 2020
- Kyoto Protocol was superseded by the Paris Agreement in 2016
- Required reduction to 1990 emissions levels (Annex 1)
- Annex II (developed countries with responsibilities) are to provide funds to developing nations to meet their costs required to reduce emissions
- Annex III (developing countries) are to submit their inventories
102
kyoto protocol
Treaty adopted and signed in 1997 by 192 countries to commit to reducing GHG emissions to a “level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”
- 2 target periods: 2008 to 2012 and 2012 to 2020 → Canada left in 2012
103
Paris agreement
Goal is to limit increase in global air temperature to well below 2 deg C above pre-industrial levels AND to increase effort to limit the increase to 1.5 deg C as this would reduce the impacts of climate change
- Calls for a reduction of GHG emissions asap to reach a balance between anthropogenic emissions and removal of GHG emissions by 2050. Supports financial aims to lower GHGs
104
COP
Conferences of the Parties (COP) – Requires representatives from all parties
105
History of International Climate Negotiations (1979-1992)
1979 – World Climate Conference
1988 – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is set up
1990 – IPCC and 2nd World Climate Conference → Global treaty on climate change
1991 – First meeting of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee
1992 – Earth Summit in Rio → United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with other Rio Conventions: UN Convention on Biological Diversity and UN Convention to Combat Desertification
106
History of International Climate Negotiations (1994 - 2001)
1994 – UNFCCC begins
1995 – First Conference of the Parties (COP) in Berlin
1996 – UNFCCC Secretariat is set up to support action under the Convention
1997 – Kyoto Protocol adopted at COP3 → Emissions targets for developed countries
2001 – Marrakesh Accords adopted at COP7 → Rules for implementation of Kyoto Protocol
107
History of International Climate Negotiations (2005-2011)
2005 – First Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP) in Montreal
2007 – IPCC 4th Assessment Report→Climate science is now in public domain - COP13 → Agreement of Bali Road Map
2009 – Copenhagen Accord Drafted at COP15
2010 – Cancun Agreements drafted, accepted at COP16
2011 – Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, accepted at COP17
108
History of International Climate Negotiations (2012-2019)
2012 – The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol adopted by CMP at CMP8
2013 – Decisions to advance the Durban Platform, Green Climate Fund, Finance, Warsaw Framework for REDD+ and others
2014 – COP20 in Peru
2015 – COP21 held in Paris (Paris Agreement)
2019 – UN Climate Action Summit → 77 countries pledged to reduce GHG emissions to zero by 2050
109
What is carbon pricing?
Paying higher prices for GHG emissions→The more someone/industry pollutes, the more they should pay
* Higher C prices for pollution enable governments to pay for reduction strategies
* Makes polluting more expensive and clean technologies more affordable
* 70 governments have introduced C pricing
* Found to be the most effective GHG reduction mechanism→speeds up transition and enhances technology development
110
2 main parts, some provinces follow both, some follow one or both partially, and some have provincial systems. what are the 2 parts?
Part 1: Federal and provincial C levels are charged for petroleum products + a federal charge on fuel (federal fuel charge) → $20 per ton + $10 per year to $50
Part 2: Regulatory trading system for industry: federal Output-Based Pricing System (OBPS). These use a variety of carbon trading programs, cap-and-trade, OBPS, C taxes
111
Governments offer incentive via rebates, tax credits, and lower gas taxes. These include:
Climate Action Incentive: rebates offered to residents
Climate Action Incentive Fund: Schools, businesses, communities
However, Industries don’t get relief and pay depending on emissions
112
pros of C pricing
* C pricing has been found to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions
* Boost spending patterns and the economy
* Funds obtained are put into improving community sustainability
* Individuals and families receive rebates which are typically greater than without the C pricing/tax
113
cons of C pricing
Differences in C pricing may create disadvantages for industries that create substantial GHG emissions or national to international trade→Emissions allowances in some provinces and incentives to encourage emissions reductions
114
describe carbon tax
* Tax is charged on GHG pollution amount (burning of fossil fuels) → surcharge is placed on C-based fuels and other sources of pollution
* Is a monetary price on the real costs of GHGs and climate warming
* Desire to shift homes, business and industry to cleaner technology
* Is relatively easy to implement → taxes emitting industry; encourages/subsidizes technology development
115
cap and trade
Market puts a price on GHG emissions as well as a cap on emissions to encourage reduction over time
116
How have other countries adapted? 40 countries currently have C pricing. Discuss the UK, USA, Sweden, and European Union Countries.
UK: C tax implemented to encourage reduced use of coal → GHG emissions are now below 1890 levels
USA: 9 states currently implement cap and trade through the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative and it is growing → GHG emissions are lowered and funds drive new innovation
Sweden: started in 1991 at $52 Cdn per tonne (now at $188/tonne). Currently at 75% of 1990 levels with massive economic growth
European Union Countries (28 countries): Also at 75% of 1990 levels + significant economic growth
117
national reporting obligations (Canada)
Canada must report to UNFCCC:
* Part I→GHG inventories (C emissions and uptake/sequestration) each year
* Part II→GHG emissions trends, projections, policies and measures, circumstances every 4 years
118
GHG emissions are collected from 5 sectors each year:
Energy, Industry, Agriculture, Land use, Land use change and forestry, and Waste
119
mass balances
are used to determine GHG emissions vs. removals to create an inventory→Include extensive measurement and modelling
120
GDP increased more rapidly than GHG emissions → 30% below 2005 levels by 2030 (T/F)
true
121
energy sector (emissions)
Produce 80% of GHG emissions from transportation and the fossil fuel industry – mostly associated with combustion. Emissions from transportation is about 30% of this.
122
industrial processes (emissions)
produced from industrial processes not related to energy (e.g. cement production, steel blast furnace operation, etc.)
123
agriculture (emissions)
Mostly from animal production, CH4 is produced during digestion, creating a significant GHG
124
forestry, land use change (emissions)
Includes emissions from land use change, forest burning and timber from the managed forest area. Also includes significant uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere, however, all emissions and removals are excluded from the national total. Unmanaged lands are not included.
125
waste (emissions)
Emissions from waste disposal, waste water and incineration
126
CO2 capture technologies
CO2 capture→potential to reduce emissions from coal and gas-fired power plants, industry
* Captures CO2, compresses and transports it (in pipelines)
* Underground injection into rock formations or can be recovered to create products
127
direct air capture
Removes CO2 from the atmosphere
BUT: Very expensive compared with other climate change solutions → up to 95 USD/tonne compared with 50 CDN/tonne tax
128
shallow ecology
environment is valuable because it is of value to humans
129
deep ecology
puts an intrinsic value in the environment
130
What are some ethically troubling questions that we face?
If we knowingly impact nature and know that we are causing problems for the future, but do it anyways, are we responsible for the harm that we are doing?
