EXAM #3 Flashcards by Madison Allen

Includes all the endocrine glands and
tissues that produce hormones

Endocrine system

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Secrete cell product into interstitial fluids around cell or into stream

Endocrine glands

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

_ are NOT part of the endocrine system

Exocrine glands

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

secrete cell product onto body surface (internal or external)
- sweat glands
- saliva glands
- digestive tract glands

Exocrine glands

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what does the Endocrine system do?

Controls slow, long duration responses

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Endocrine system: what does it do?
Regulates _ and _ in body fluids (CA2+)

fluid balance
ion concentration

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Endocrine system: what does it do?
Regulates absorption of _

nutrients (digestive-insulin)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Endocrine system: what does it do?
Regulates metabolism and _

growth (GH) (Thyroid)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Endocrine system: what does it do?
Regulates sexual characteristics and _

reproduction

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Endocrine system: what does it do?
Regulates body’s response to _

stress

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Regulates fluid balance and ion concentration in body fluids
Regulates absorption of nutrients
Regulates metabolism and growth
Regulates sexual characteristics and reproduction
Regulates body’s response to stress

What the Endocrine system does

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication by chemical
messages in 4 ways

Direct through gap junctions
Neurotransmitters
Paracrine factors (local hormones)
Hormones

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication by chemical
messages:
- Released by presynaptic nerve cell
- Produce effects in adjacent postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitters

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication by chemical
messages:
- Released by most cells into interstitial fluids
- Produce effects in neighboring cells within one tissue

Paracrine factors (local hormones)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication by chemical
messages:
- Released by endocrine cells into interstitial fluids, diffuse into capillaries
- Produce effects in target cells elsewhere in body

Hormones

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = _
Transmission = through gap junctions
Chemical mediators = ions, small solutes, lipid-soluble materials
Distribution of effects = Usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected by connexons

Direct communication

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Direct communication
Transmission = _
Chemical mediators = ions, small solutes, lipid-soluble materials
Distribution of effects = Usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected by connexons

through gap junctions

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Direct communication
Transmission = through gap junctions
Chemical mediators = _
Distribution of effects = Usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected by connexons

ions, small solutes, lipid-soluble materials

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Direct communication
Transmission = through gap junctions
Chemical mediators = ions, small solutes, lipid-soluble materials
Distribution of effects = _

Usually limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected by connexons

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = _
Transmission = through extracellular fluid
Chemical mediators = Paracrine factors (i.e. histamine)
Distribution of effects = Primarily limited to local area, where concentrations are relatively high. Target cells must have appropriate receptors.

Paracrine communication

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Paracrine communication
Transmission = _
Chemical mediators = Paracrine factors (i.e. histamine)
Distribution of effects = Primarily limited to local area, where concentrations are relatively high. Target cells must have appropriate receptors.

through extracellular fluid

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Paracrine communication
Transmission = through extracellular fluid
Chemical mediators = _
Distribution of effects = Primarily limited to local area, where concentrations are relatively high. Target cells must have appropriate receptors.

Paracrine factors (i.e. histamine)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = Paracrine communication
Transmission = through extracellular fluid
Chemical mediators = Paracrine factors (i.e. histamine)
Distribution of effects = _

Primarily limited to local area, where concentrations are relatively high. Target cells must have appropriate receptors.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication:
Mechanism = _
Transmission = through the circulatory system
Chemical mediators = Hormones
Distribution of effects = Target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors

Endocrine communication

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Endocrine communication Transmission = _ Chemical mediators = Hormones Distribution of effects = Target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors

through the circulatory system

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Endocrine communication Transmission = through the circulatory system Chemical mediators = _ Distribution of effects = Target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors

Hormones

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Endocrine communication Transmission = through the circulatory system Chemical mediators = Hormones Distribution of effects = _

Target cells are primarily in other tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = _ Transmission = across synaptic clefts Chemical mediators = Neurotransmitters Distribution of effects = limited to very specific area. Target cells must have appropriate receptors

Synaptic communication

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Synaptic communication Transmission = _ Chemical mediators = Neurotransmitters Distribution of effects = limited to very specific area. Target cells must have appropriate receptors

across synaptic clefts

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Synaptic communication Transmission = across synaptic clefts Chemical mediators = _ Distribution of effects = limited to very specific area. Target cells must have appropriate receptors

Neurotransmitters

Intercellular communication: Mechanism = Synaptic communication Transmission = across synaptic clefts Chemical mediators = Neurotransmitters Distribution of effects = _

limited to very specific area. Target cells must have appropriate receptors

Hormone Communications: Hormones reach almost all body cells via _

bloodstream

Hormone Communications: Produce effects only in _ cells that have _ for the hormone

- "target" - receptor

Hormone Communications: Hormone is eventually removed by _

destruction or elimination

Hormone Communications: Hormone is eventually removed by destruction or elimination - Freely circulating hormones are _ removed from blood stream

rapidly

Hormone Communications: Hormone is eventually removed by destruction or elimination - Hormones bound to _ removed more slowly

transport proteins

Hormone effects on “target” cells * Target cells have _ for hormone *

receptor

Hormone Communications: Gene activation leading to synthesis of an _ or structural _

- enzyme - protein

Hormone Communications: - _ of synthesis of an enzyme or structural protein - Turn an existing enzyme “on” or “off”

Increase or decrease rate

Reflex control of endocrine activity: _ feedback control mechanism

Negative

Reflex control of endocrine activity: Negative feedback control mechanism - in response to changes in composition of _

interstitial fluids or blood

Reflex control of endocrine activity: Negative feedback control mechanism - Location of receptor sensitive to change may be in the _

gland or in hypothalamus

Reflex control of endocrine activity: Simple (direct) endocrine reflexes - _ on gland secreting the hormone - Example: glucose levels in blood control insulin release by endocrine cells of pancreas

Direct effect

Reflex control of endocrine activity: Complex (indirect) endocrine reflexes - _ involve hypothalamus, pituitary gland, two or more hormones

Indirect or cascade effects

Hormone communications: 3 Types of hormones

1. Amines 2. Peptide hormones 3. Lipid derivatives

Hormone communications: Types of hormones - Norepinephrine, epinephrine, thyroid hormones, etc.

Amines (Amino acid derivatives)

Hormone communications: Types of hormones - Insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, etc.

Peptide hormones (chains of amino acids)

Hormone communications: Types of hormones - Steroids-structurally related to cholesterol - Estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone

Lipid derivatives

Amine hormone, Peptide hormone & Protein hormone all have similar _

mechanisms of action

Hormone class _ Components: Amino acids with modified groups Example: Norepinephrine

Amine hormone

Hormone class _ Components: Short chains of linked amino acids Example: Oxytocin

Peptide hormone

Hormone class _ Components: long chains of linked amino acids Example: Human growth hormone

Protein hormone

Hormone class _ Components: Derived from the lipid cholesterol Example: Testosterone & progesterone

steroid hormones

Mechanisms of hormone action: Peptide hormones - Receptors in cell membranes of target cell if hormone _

cannot cross cell membrane

Mechanisms of hormone action: Peptide hormones - Receptors in cell membranes of target cell if hormone cannot cross cell membrane - Amines, peptide hormones - Produce effect via _

G protein-coupled receptors and 2nd messengers

Mechanisms of hormone action: Peptide hormones - Produce effect via G protein-coupled receptors and 2nd messengers - 2nd messenger is _ - Rapidly removed from body

cyclic AMP or calcium

Mechanism of hormone action: Lipid hormone and Thyroid hormone - Receptors in the _ for lipid soluble hormones

cytoplasm or nucleus

Mechanism of hormone action: Lipid hormone and Thyroid hormone - Thyroid & steroid hormones _ then bind to receptor inside

cross membrane

Mechanism of hormone action: Lipid hormone and Thyroid hormone - Produce effect by _ and ATP synthesis

controlling gene expression

Mechanism of hormone action: Lipid hormone and Thyroid hormone - Lipid hormones are bound to transport proteins, so removed from body _

more slowly

Protein hormones (Peptide, Amine): _, move freely dissolved in plasma

soluble

Protein hormones (Peptide, Amine): - _ at target cell, binds to G protein-coupled receptor - activates 2nd messenger - cAMP - Ca2+

CANNOT cross cell membrane

Protein hormones (Peptide, Amine): _ removed from blood stream

rapidly

Lipid hormones & Thyroid (cholesterol, steroid): - _, must be bound to transport protein in plasma

insoluble

Lipid hormones & Thyroid (cholesterol, steroid): - _, binds to receptor in cell

CAN cross cell membrane

Lipid hormones & Thyroid (cholesterol, steroid): Removed _ from bloodstream

slowly

Connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): _ – posterior portion - developed as outgrowth of CNS

Neurohypophysis

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): _ – anterior portion - developed as outgrowth of glandular tissue of pharynx

Adenohypophysis

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): Neurohypophysis – posterior portion - developed as outgrowth of _

CNS

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): Adenohypophysis – anterior portion - developed as outgrowth of _

glandular tissue of pharynx

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): Releases _ peptide hormones

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): Releases 9 peptide hormones - All 9 bind to membrane receptors and use _ as a second messenger

cAMP or Ca+2

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): _ hormones from Anterior pituitary lobe

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): _ hormones from Posterior pituitary lobe

Hypothalamus neurons release regulatory hormones into fenestrated capillaries of _

hypophyseal portal system

Hypophyseal portal system: Blood entering the portal system goes to intended _ before returning to general circulation

target cells

Feedback control of hormones of the adenohypophysis: Hormone release from adenohypophysis is controlled by _ secreted by _

- regulatory hormones - hypothalamus

Thyroid gland produces

C cells (parafollicular cells) and follicle cells

Thyroid gland: C cells (parafollicular cells) - Produce _ in response to high calcium ion levels

calcitonin

Thyroid gland: C cells (parafollicular cells) _ inhibits osteoclasts and increases Ca2+ excretion by kidney

Calcitonin

Thyroid gland: Release thyroid hormones - thyroxine (T4) - triiodothyronine (T3)

Follicle Cells

Function of thyroid hormones: Produce strong, immediate, short-lasting increase in the _

rate of cellular metabolism and use of energy

Function of thyroid hormones: Cross cell membrane and bind to _ receptors

intracellular

Function of thyroid hormones: Cross cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors - Bind to _ and increase rate of ATP production

mitochondria

Function of thyroid hormones: Cross cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors - Bind to receptors activating genes that control _ utilization Function of thyroid hormones

energy

Thyroid hormones: Amino acid with attached _ ions

iodide

Thyroid hormones: 90% of secretions are _ with 4 iodide ions

T4 (thyroxine)

Thyroid hormones: T4 is converted to _ by enzymes in peripheral tissues - T3 is the _ of the hormone

- T3 (tri-iodothyronine) - active form

Thyroid hormones: Thyroid hormones in bloodstream are attached to transport proteins, creating large reserve supply of _

T4 and T3

Thyroid hormones: Synthesis and release controlled by _ from _

- TSH - adenohypophysis

Function of thyroid hormone: Essential for normal development of _ during childhood - Cretinism

skeletal, muscular and nervous systems

Function of thyroid hormone: Essential for normal _ in adults - Hypothyroidism - Hyperthyroidism - Goiter

metabolic control

Four glands embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland

Parathyroid glands

Parathyroid glands: Secretes _ in response to lower than normal calcium concentration

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Parathyroid glands: Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to _ than normal _ concentration

- lower - calcium

Parathyroid glands: PTH _ concentration

increases

Parathyroid glands: PTH increases concentration - Stimulate osteoclasts - Inhibit osteoblasts - Decrease Ca2+ excretion by kidneys - Stimulate formation of _ by kidneys

calcitriol

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion concentration: _ concentration affects nerve & muscle cell excitability

Ca2+

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion concentration: Ca2+concentration maintained by _ feedback system involving both _ and _

- negative - PTH & calcitonin

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion concentration: PTH & calcitonin have effects: - _ – storage of calcium ions - Osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Bones

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion concentration: PTH & calcitonin have effects: - _ – absorption of calcium ions - Calcitriol

Digestive tract

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion concentration: PTH & calcitonin have effects: - _ – excretion of calcium ions

Kidneys

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”

1. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) also called _

thyrotropin

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Triggers the release of hormones from thyroid gland

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropin)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus promotes the release of _

TSH

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Also called corticotropin

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) also called _

corticotropin

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: stimulates the release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (corticotropin)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis “Tropic Hormones”: Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus causes the secretion of _

ACTH

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: 2 Gonadotropins

1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Gonadotropins - Stimulates follicle development (egg maturation) & estrogen secretion in ovaries

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Gonadotropins - Stimulates sperm production in sustentacular cells of testes

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Gonadotropins - Causes ovulation & progestin production in ovaries

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Gonadotropins - Causes androgen (testosterone) production in testes

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GmRH) from hypothalamus promotes secretion of _

FSH & LH

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: - Stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk production

Prolactin (PRL)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk production - Release stimulated by _ from hypothalamus (inhibited by Inhibiting Hormone)

Prolactin Releasing Hormone

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin pigment in skin and other locations

Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis: Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin pigment in skin and other locations - In humans, _ MSH is produced by pituitary gland

very little

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): Tropic effect - Cause release of _ from liver

somatomedins

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): Tropic effect - Cause release of somatomedins from liver - Somatomedins cause increase in amino acid uptake in skeletal muscle cells, cartilage cells – stimulates _ and cell growth

protein synthesis

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): Direct effect - increase _ in epithelial & connective tissue, enhance break down of lipid & glycogen energy reserves

cell division

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): _ - increase cell division in epithelial & connective tissue, enhance break down of lipid & glycogen energy reserves

Direct effect

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): _ - Cause release of somatomedins from liver

Tropic effect

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin): Release controlled by _ and _ from hypothalamus

GH releasing hormone (GH-RH) & GH inhibiting hormone (GH-IH)

Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland): Contains _ of hypothalamic nerve cells - secrete hormones into blood

axon terminals

Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland): - Decreases the amount of water lost at the kidneys – decreases urine production - Elevates blood pressure

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland): - Stimulates contractile cells in mammary glands - Stimulates smooth muscle cells in uterus

Oxytocin

2 Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland) hormones

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 2. Oxytocin

Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland): _ hormone ---> kidneys

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of the pituitary gland): _ hormone ---> Males: smooth muscle in ductus deferens and prostate gland; Females: uterine smooth muscle and mammary glands

Oxytocin (OXT)

secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Adrenal medulla (neuro-endocrine cells)

secretes steroid hormones (corticosteroids)

Adrenal cortex (gland cells)

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Secretes _ (~75 - 80%)

epinephrine

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Secretes _ (~20-25%)

norepinephrine

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine - Produce increased availability of _

energy resources

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Produce increased availability of energy resources - Cause breakdown of glycogen in liver to release glucose for use by _

brain

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Produce increased availability of energy resources - Cause breakdown of _ for use by other cells of body

fat to release fatty acids

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells): Produce increased rate & force of _ contractions and other _ effects

- cardiac - sympathetic

Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine cells) controlled by _ activity

Autonomic Nervous System

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): 3 types

1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) 2. Glucocorticoids 3. Androgens

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): - Secreted if Na+ is low, K+ is high, or BP is low

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): - Cause retention of Na+ and water, loss of K+

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - Cause retention of _, loss of K+

Na+ and water

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): Secreted in response to ACTH release from anterior pituitary

Glucocorticoids

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): Glucocorticoids - Cause decrease _ and increased rate of glycogen synthesis - Have anti-inflammatory effects

use of glucose

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): - encourages bone and muscle growth, blood formation - testosterone

Androgens

Adrenal cortex (secretes corticosteroids): Androgens - primary role is in _; testes of adult males produces larger amounts

children & women

Pineal gland secretes _

melatonin

Pineal gland: Melatonin - Increased _ exposure causes _ melatonin secretion

- sunlight - decreased

Pineal gland: Possible functions include: – setting circadian rhythms – anti-oxidant – inhibiting reproductive function

Melatonin

Pineal gland: Depression correlated with decreased sunlight exposure and increased melatonin

Seasonal Affective Disorder

99% of pancreas is _ cells – secrete enzymes into digestive tract

exocrine

Pancreas: Endocrine cells occur in _

small clusters

Pancreas: Endocrine cells occur in small clusters - Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets

"islands" on pancreas that are only providing hormones

Pancreas: Endocrine cells occur in small clusters - Secrete hormones involved in regulation of _ level

blood glucose

Pancreas: Alpha cells secrete _ in response to _ blood glucose levels

- low - glucagon

Pancreas: _ cells secrete glucagon in response to low blood glucose levels

Alpha

Pancreas: Beta cells secrete _ in response to _ blood glucose levels

- insulin - high

Pancreas: _ secrete insulin in response to high blood glucose levels

Beta cells

_ secreted by Beta (β) cells

Insulin

Insulin – secreted by Beta (β) cells: _ blood glucose levels

lowers

Insulin – secreted by Beta (β) cells: Increases rate of glucose uptake & utilization in _ cells

insulin-dependent

Insulin – secreted by Beta (β) cells: Increases rate of glucose uptake & utilization in insulin-dependent cells - Glucose used for energy production and/or synthesis of glycogen and other energy storage _

macromolecules

Insulin – secreted by Beta (β) cells: Increased uptake of _ & synthesis of _ in adipose cells

- fatty acids - triglycerides

Insulin – secreted by Beta (β) cells: Increased uptake of _ & synthesis of proteins

amino acids

_ secreted by Alpha (α) cells

Glucagon

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: _ blood glucose levels

raises

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increases the rate of _

glycogen breakdown

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increases the rate of glycogen breakdown - In liver: glucose _

released into blood

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increases the rate of glycogen breakdown - In muscle: glucose _ cells

remains in muscle

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increases _ manufacture by _ – Gluconeogenesis from amino acids

- glucose - liver

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increased release of _ from adipose tissue

fatty acids into blood

Glucagon – secreted by Alpha (α) cells: Increased release of fatty acids into blood from adipose tissue - _: most cells start using FA as energy source instead of glucose

Glucose sparing

2 types of diabetes

1. diabetes insipidus 2. diabetes mellitus

Diabetes: - Polyuria – excess urine production - inadequate ADH secretion

Diabetes insipidus

Diabetes: - _ – excess urine production

Polyuria

Diabetes insipidus: - Polyuria – excess urine production - inadequate _

ADH secretion

Diabetes: - Polyuria – excess urine production – Glycosuria – glucose in urine – Hyperglycemia – abnormally high glucose levels in blood – Breakdown of lipids and proteins as energy source for cell metabolism

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus: _ – glucose in urine

Glycosuria

Diabetes mellitus: _ – abnormally high glucose levels in blood

Hyperglycemia

Diabetes mellitus: Breakdown of _ as energy source for cell metabolism - Ketone bodies, ketoacidosis

lipids and proteins

Diabetes Mellitus: Type _ – insulin dependent – Inadequate insulin production

Diabetes Mellitus: Type _ – non-insulin dependent – Inadequate insulin response

Diabetes Mellitus: Type I – insulin dependent – Inadequate _

insulin production

Diabetes Mellitus: Effects of _ - Diabetic microvascular disorders - Diabetic cardiovascular changes

high glucose &/or low insulin

Diabetes Mellitus: Type II – non-insulin dependent – Inadequate insulin _

response

Adipose Tissue: feedback control for appetit

Leptin

Adipose Tissue: reduces insulin sensitivity

Resistin

The Endocrine Tissues of Other Systems: coordination of digestive activities

Intestine

The Endocrine Tissues of Other Systems: hormones regulating blood volume, blood pressure, blood calcium level

Kidneys

The Endocrine Tissues of Other Systems: ovaries & testes secrete hormones involved in reproductive functions

Gonads

A blood test with a high TSH level might indicate _

a problem with the thyroid gland causing low thyroid hormone levels

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal - muscular tube - Extends from oral cavity to anus

Digestive tract

Accessory organs of the digestive tract

Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Functions of the digestive system: - eating, drinking

Ingestion

Functions of the digestive system: - mastication, churning, swallowing, peristalsis

Mechanical processing and propulsion

Functions of the digestive system: - breakdown of ingested material via acids and enzymes

Digestion

Functions of the digestive system: - exocrine secretions into lumen of GI tract

Secretion

Functions of the digestive system: - movement of nutrients, vitamins, ions, water out of lumen

Absorption

Functions of the digestive system: - ejection of waste products

Excretion

Histological organization of digestive tract: - inner-most layer

mucosa

Histological organization of digestive tract: inner layer - Many exocrine & endocrine gland cells - Epithelial cells replaced rapidly by stem cells

mucosa

Histological organization of digestive tract: inner layer - Layer of dense irregular connective tissue - blood vessels and lymph vessels

submucosa

Histological organization of digestive tract: Inner layer - Outer longitudinal layer and inner circular layer -- Stomach has third oblique layer, innermost - Provides mechanical processing and movement of materials along digestive tract

Muscularis layer - smooth muscle

Histological organization of digestive tract: Outer layer - covers muscularis of oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus & rectum - connects firmly to adjacent body wall

Adventitia

Histological organization of digestive tract: Outer layer - covers muscularis of all parts of digestive tract that are free to move

Serosa (Peritoneum)

Histological organization of digestive tract: Outer layer - Visceral and parietal peritoneum - _ - extensions of peritoneum - connect digestive tract to body wall and other viscera

Serosa (Peritoneum) - Mesentery

Contains sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons

Enteric Nervous System (2nd brain)

Enteric Nervous System - _ plexus - _ plexus - Input from parasympathetic and sympathetic ANS

- myenteric - submucosal

_ factors control movement & gland secretions

Neural, hormonal, & local

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: Neural - ANS long reflexes – control _

large areas

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: Neural - ANS long reflexes – control large areas -- GI activity _ by parasympathetic

stimulated

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: Neural - ANS long reflexes – control large areas -- GI activity _ by sympathetic activity

inhibited

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: Neural - Short reflexes – _ - Control within the enteric nervous system

localized responses

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: - varies by area of GI tract

Hormonal

Neural, hormonal, & local factors control movement & gland secretions: - varies by area, mainly Histamine

Local

Movement of digestive materials: - Churn and fragment a bolus of digestive contents, mixing in intestinal secretions

segmentation

Movement of digestive materials: - waves that move a bolus down the length of the tract

peristalsis

3 phases of regulation of gastric activity

1. cephalic phase 2. gastric phase 3. intestinal phase

Regulation of gastric activity: _ phase prepares stomach to receive ingested material

Cephalic phase

Regulation of gastric activity: _ phase begins with the arrival of food in the stomach - Neural, hormonal, and local responses

Gastric phase

Regulation of gastric activity: _ phase controls the rate of gastric emptying

Intestinal phase

Regulation of gastric activity: - Prepare stomach for arrival of food - Initiated by sight, smell, taste, of food - Produced via parasympathetic stimulation from vagus nerve (CN X)

Cephalic phase

Regulation of gastric activity: Cephalic phase - Produced via parasympathetic stimulation from vagus nerve (CN X) -- Excitatory to mucous cells = _

mucus released

Regulation of gastric activity: Cephalic phase - Produced via parasympathetic stimulation from vagus nerve (CN X) -- Excitatory to parietal cells = _

H+ & Cl- released

Regulation of gastric activity: Cephalic phase - Produced via parasympathetic stimulation from vagus nerve (CN X) -- Excitatory to chief cells = _

pepsinogen released

Regulation of gastric activity: Cephalic phase - Produced via parasympathetic stimulation from vagus nerve (CN X) -- Excitatory to G cells = _

gastrin secreted

Regulation of gastric activity: Mechanical activity producing chyme - Mixing of food with digestive enzymes & acid - Maceration of food into small particles

Gastric phase

Regulation of gastric activity: Gastric phase - stimulated by _

stretching of stomach wall, by pH increase, by undigested protein

Regulation of gastric activity: Gastric phase - stimulated by stretching of stomach wall, by pH increase, by undigested protein -- Excitation of _ gland and _

- gastric - mucous cells

Regulation of gastric activity: Gastric phase - stimulated by stretching of stomach wall, by pH increase, by undigested protein -- Excitation of _

G cells

Regulation of gastric activity: Gastric phase - stimulated by stretching of stomach wall, by pH increase, by undigested protein -- Excitation of stomach _

wall muscles

Regulation of gastric activity: Gastric phase - food stays in stomach _, mechanical activity increases over time

3-4 hours

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - Release chyme into small intestine -- _ quantities exit via pyloric sphincter

small

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - Slow rate of emptying controlled by feedback from small intestine causing: -- Inhibition of _ gland cells -- Inhibition of _ wall muscle

- gastric - stomach

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - _ of stomach caused by: -- stretching of intestinal wall -- pH decrease in intestine -- undigested lipids and carbohydrates

Inhibition

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - _ is mixed with -- Secretions and buffers provided by pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells in intestinal epithelium

Chyme in duodenum

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - Local _ slowly propel chyme forward

peristaltic movements

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - As chyme is processed and moves onward: -- inhibition _

decreases

Regulation of gastric activity: Intestinal phase - As chyme is processed and moves onward: -- increased _ in stomach releases another quantity of _

- motility - chyme

Responsible for ~80% of stomach ulcers - Penetrates mucus coating, releases toxins that damage epithelium

Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori: - _ allows gastric “juices” to enter wall of stomach -- Pain, bleeding -- Perforation of wall can occur if untreated, stomach contents leak into peritoneal cavity

Loss of epithelium

Helicobacter pylori: - Treat with _ to kill H. pylori bacteria - Treat with _ to improve healing

- antibiotics - antacids & dietary restriction

Large portion of stomach and duodenum are bypassed

gastric bypass surgery

Stomach opening can be loosened over time to change the size of passage - feel full really quickly - loosen once new lifestyle can be maintained

stomach banding surgery

Absorption of water: Nearly all water that is _ is absorbed

ingested or secreted into GI tract

Absorption of water: Nearly all water that is ingested or secreted into GI tract is absorbed - about _ per day

9,000 ml/day

Absorption of water: - _ ml ingested - _ ml from secretions (saliva, gastric, intestinal, liver, pancreas, colon) - Approximately _ ml left in feces

- 2,000 - 7,000+ - 150

Absorption of water: Water moves out of _, into body - moves down its concentration gradient

lumen

Absorption of water: Water moves out of lumen, into body - moves down its concentration gradient - osmosis = diffusion of water - as solutes are absorbed out of lumen, _, water moves out

osmolarity increases

Nutrients - Digestion & Absorption: Absorption of nutrients following breakdown of macromolecules - Monomers absorbed on lumen side of _

epithelial cells

Nutrients - Digestion & Absorption: Absorption of nutrients following breakdown of macromolecules - Release from _ into interstitial fluids

epithelial cells

Nutrients - Digestion & Absorption: Absorption of nutrients following breakdown of macromolecules - Diffusion from interstitial fluids into _ of vascular system or _ of lymphatic system

- capillaries - lacteal

Carbohydrates - Digestion & Absorption: Oral cavity, stomach, small intestine - Salivary and pancreatic _ -- Polysaccharides → Disaccharides

amylase enzyme

Carbohydrates - Digestion & Absorption: Oral cavity, stomach, small intestine - Brush border enzymes (sucrase, lactase, etc.) -- Disaccharides → _

monosaccharides

Carbohydrates - Digestion & Absorption: - Absorption of monosaccharides into epithelia by specific _ -- facilitated diffusion & co-transport

transport proteins

Carbohydrates - Digestion & Absorption: Release to _ by specific transport proteins

interstitial fluids

Carbohydrates - Digestion & Absorption: - Diffuse into _

blood capillaries

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: - Bile salts in duodenum -- emulsify lipid into small droplets for better enzyme access -- complex with monomers to form _

micelles

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: _ diffuse into epithelial cells

Micelles

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: _ formed in epithelia cells

Chylomicrons

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: triglycerides made from monomers & combine with proteins to form

Chylomicrons

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: Chylomicrons released by _ from epithelial cells and enter lacteals

exocytosis

Lipoproteins (soluble complexes of lipids and proteins): - largest lipoprotein, mostly triglycerides

chylomicrons

Lipoproteins (soluble complexes of lipids and proteins): 1. Chylomicrons - Produced by intestinal epithelial cells from lipids absorbed during _

digestion

Lipoproteins (soluble complexes of lipids and proteins): 1. Chylomicrons Lipoprotein _ in capillary walls releases _ and monoglycerides from chylomicrons

- lipase - fatty acids

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: - Transport of triglycerides to peripheral tissues - Fatty acids released by lipoprotein lipase

2. Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: - Transport of cholesterol peripheral tissues - Enter cells by receptor mediated endocytosis

3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: 3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) - Transport of _ peripheral tissues

cholesterol

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: 2. Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) - Transport of _ to peripheral tissues

triglycerides

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: 4. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) - Transport _ diffusing out of peripheral cells _

- cholesterol - back into liver

Lipoprotein produced by the liver: - Transport cholesterol diffusing out of peripheral cells back into liver

4. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

Oral (buccal) cavity functions

1. Analysis of material before swallowing 2. Mastication - mechanical processing by the teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces 3. Lubrication via salivary secretions 4. Initial digestion of starch (salivary amylase) and lipids (lingual lipase) 5. Prevent entry of pathogens

Oral (buccal) cavity functions: - _ of material before swallowing

Analysis

Oral (buccal) cavity functions: - mechanical processing by the teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces

Mastication

Oral (buccal) cavity functions: - Lubrication via _

salivary secretions

Oral (buccal) cavity functions: - Initial digestion of _ (salivary amylase) and _ (lingual lipase)

- starch - lipids

Oral (buccal) cavity functions: - Prevent entry of pathogens - Palatine, Lingual & Pharyngeal _ – lymphoid organs of immune system Oral (buccal) cavity functions

tonsils

Salivary glands 3 pairs

1. Parotid glands 2. Sublingual glands 3. Submandibular glands

Salivary glands: 1. Parotid glands ( _ of saliva secretion)

~25%

Salivary glands: 2. Sublingual glands ( _ of saliva secretion)

~5%

Salivary glands: 3. Submandibular glands ( _ of saliva secretion)

~70%

Functions of saliva: - Watery solution (99.4% water) to _

moisten food

Functions of saliva: - _ (mucins) for lubrication

Glycoproteins

Functions of saliva: - Buffers to maintain _

neutral pH

Functions of saliva: - _ & lysozymes to control oral bacteria

Antibodies (IgA)

Functions of saliva: - Salivary amylase enzymes to initiate digestion of _

complex carbohydrates

Functions of saliva: - _ to initiate lipid digestion

Lingual lipase

Common passageway for food, liquids, and air

pharynx

- Connects to trachea and esophagus - Pharyngeal skeletal muscles assist in swallowing

pharynx

Carries solids and liquids from the pharynx to the stomach

Esophagus

- Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle - Upper and lower esophageal

Esophagus

4 phases for Swallowing (deglutition)

1. Buccal phase 2. Pharyngeal phase 3. Bolus enters stomach 4. Esophageal phase

Phases for Swallowing (deglutition): - voluntary, tongue moves bolus into pharynx - Soft palate, uvula elevate to close off nasopharynx

1. Buccal phase

Phases for Swallowing (deglutition): - involuntary control via swallowing center - Elevate larynx and close epiglottis (Breathing stops momentarily) - Pharyngeal muscles move bolus downward into esophagus

2. pharyngeal phase

Phases for Swallowing (deglutition): - involuntary control via swallowing center - Peristalsis moves bolus downward - Lower esophageal sphincter opens and food enters stomach

Esophageal phase

Voluntary phases for Swallowing (deglutition)

Buccal phase

Involuntary phases for Swallowing (deglutition)

- pharyngeal phase - esophageal phase

Anatomy of the stomach

Cardia, Fundus, Body, Pylorus

Anatomy and function of the stomach: - _ controls movement of contents of stomach into intestine

Pyloric sphincter

Function of the stomach: - _ of undigested food

Bulk storage

Function of the stomach: - Mechanical breakdown of food & mixing with stomach secretions -- _ via longitudinal, circular and oblique muscle layers -- _ (digested food)

- Churning - chyme

Function of the stomach: - Disruption of chemical bonds via acids and enzymes = _

digestion

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric pits - Mucous cells produce _ to protect stomach epithelium

alkaline mucus

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric pits - _ to produce new epithelial cells

stem cells

Gland cells of the stomach: Pyloric glands - At base of _ in pyloric region

gastric pits

Gland cells of the stomach: Pyloric glands - _ (enteroendocrine cells) secrete gastrin

G cells

Gland cells of the stomach: Pyloric glands - G cells (enteroendocrine cells) -- stimulates _ cells of gastric glands

parietal & chief

Gland cells of the stomach: Pyloric glands - G cells (enteroendocrine cells) -- stimulates gastric muscle _

motility

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric glands (body & fundus region) - Chief cells secrete _

pepsinogen

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric glands (body & fundus region) - Chief cells secrete pepsinogen -- Converted to _

pepsin

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric glands (body & fundus region) - Chief cells secrete pepsinogen -- Converted to pepsin -- Pepsin is the _ of stomach

primary proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric glands (body & fundus region) - Parietal cells secrete: -- _ needed for Vitamin B12 absorption in small intestine

intrinsic factor

Gland cells of the stomach: Gastric glands (body & fundus region) - Parietal cells secrete: -- Hydrogen ions (H+) and Chloride ions (Cl-) which produce _

hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Control of Acid Secretion: _ have receptors for three stimulators of acid secretion, reflecting neural, endocrine and paracrine control

Parietal cells

3 stimulators of acid secretion, reflecting neural, endocrine and paracrine control

1. Acetylcholine 2. Gastrin 3. Histamine

Control of Acid Secretion: Stimulators of acid secretion, reflecting neural, endocrine and paracrine control - _ (muscarinic type receptor) - from parasympathetic nerve fibers

Acetylcholine

Control of Acid Secretion: Stimulators of acid secretion, reflecting neural, endocrine and paracrine control - _ from G cells of gastric glands

Gastrin

Control of Acid Secretion: Stimulators of acid secretion, reflecting neural, endocrine and paracrine control - _ (H2 type receptor) – from mast cells of the mucosa

Histamine

Prilosec, Prevacid, Protonix, etc. are _ drugs that disable the H+ ion ATPase transport protein

Proton pump inhibitor (PPI)

Tagamet (cimetidine), Zantac, Pepsid, etc. are _ antagonists that block stimulation of parietal cells

Histamine H2 receptor

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Preliminary digestion of _

proteins

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Preliminary digestion of proteins - by pepsin from _ of gastric glands

chief cells

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Initial digestion of _ - by salivary amylase until pH gets too low

carbohydrates

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Initial digestion of carbohydrates - by _ until pH gets too low

salivary amylase

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Initial digestion of _ - by lingual lipase until pH gets too low

lipids

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Initial digestion of lipids - by _ until pH gets too low

lingual lipase

Digestion and absorption in stomach: _ kills most bacteria & living cells, breaks down cell walls, connective tissue

HCl

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Minimal absorption of _ - Some lipid-soluble drugs are absorbed

nutrients

Digestion and absorption in stomach: Minimal absorption of nutrients - Some _ drugs are absorbed

lipid-soluble

stomach gurgling = _ reflex vs. Salivation while eating = _ reflex

- long reflex - short reflex

The inner-most lining of the digestive tract is called _ layer, and is made up of _ tissue

- mucosal - epithelial

Which of the following is likely NOT controlled by a short reflex? - Buffering of acidic components of the stomach (chyme) upon arrival in the duodenum - your stomach contracting, releasing acid and enzymes if filled with food - your mouth continually produces saliva while chewing food - getting the urge to defecate directly after consuming a meal

getting the urge to defecate directly after consuming a meal

Proteins - Digestion & Absorption: Stomach, small intestine - Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, brush border enzymes -- proteins → polypeptides → _

amino acids

Proteins - Digestion & Absorption: Stomach, small intestine - _ destroys tertiary and quaternary structure

low pH

Proteins - Digestion & Absorption: Diffuse into _

blood capillaries

Lipids - Digestion, Absorption & Transport: Oral cavity, stomach, small intestine - Lingual and _

pancreatic lipase

Proteins - Digestion & Absorption: Absorption of amino acids into epithelia by _

AA-specific transport proteins

Proteins - Digestion & Absorption: Release to _ by AA-specific transport proteins

interstitial fluids

Small intestine: Muscular tube _ feet long

~20

Three subdivisions of small intestine

- Duodenum - Jejunum - Ileum

Three subdivisions of small intestine: - _ – first 10 inches

Duodenum

Three subdivisions of small intestine: - _ ~8 feet long

Jejunum

Three subdivisions of small intestine: - _ ~12 feet long

Ileum

Connection between stomach and small intestine

Pyloric sphincter

Connection between small and large intestine

Ileocecal sphincter

Pancreatic exocrine secretions: Released into pancreatic duct that connects to _

duodenum

Pancreatic exocrine secretions: Alkaline buffers to _ of chyme

raise pH

Pancreatic exocrine secretions: Digestive enzymes to breakdown _

macromolecules

Pancreatic digestive enzymes (secreted as inactive enzymes, activated in intestine)

- pancreatic amylase - lipases - nucleases - proteolytic enzymes (protease, peptidases)

Pancreatic digestive enzymes: Pancreatic amylase (starch --> _)

disaccharides

Pancreatic digestive enzymes: Lipases (lipids --> _)

fatty acids

Pancreatic digestive enzymes: Nucleases (nucleic acids --> _)

nucleotides

Pancreatic digestive enzymes: Proteolytic enzymes (proteins --> polypeptides --> _)

amino acids [dipeptides]

Pancreatic digestive enzymes: Proteolytic enzymes

- Trypsin - Chymotrypsin - carboxypeptidase - proteases - peptidases

Liver functions: 1. _ - All blood leaving digestive tract flows into liver - Liver removes and stores excess nutrients

metabolic regulation

Liver functions: 1. metabolic regulation - Liver removes and stores excess nutrients - Corrects nutrient deficiencies by _

mobilizing stored reserves or performing synthetic activities

Liver functions: 2. _ - Liver cells extract nutrients & toxins from blood - Liver produces plasma proteins

Hematological regulation

Liver functions: 2. Hematological regulation - Liver cells _ from blood

extract nutrients & toxins

Liver functions: 3. _

Bile production

Bile from liver & gallbladder: - _ necessary for emulsification of lipids - Synthesized in liver from cholesterol

Bile salts

Bile from liver & gallbladder: - Bile salts -- Necessary for _ -- Synthesized in liver from cholesterol

emulsification of lipids

Bile from liver & gallbladder: Water & ions - Dilute & buffer acids in _

chyme

Bile from liver & gallbladder: _ - Waste pigment formed from heme of red blood cells phagocytized and recycled by liver

Bilirubin

Bile from liver & gallbladder: Bilirubin - Waste pigment formed from _ cells phagocytized and recycled by liver

heme of red blood

Gallbladder – muscular, expandable sack - Stores, modifies and concentrate _

bile

Gallbladder and liver share _ which connects to duodenum - Connects at same location as _

- common bile duct - pancreatic duct

- Controls release of both pancreatic secretions and bile

Hepatopancreatic sphincter

4 Hormones secreted by duodenum

1. cholecystokinin (CCK)* 2. Secretin* 3. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) 4. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Hormones secreted by duodenum: Released in response to undigested food

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormones secreted by duodenum: - Stimulate secretion of pancreatic enzymes

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormones secreted by duodenum: Cholecystokinin (CCK) - Inhibit _ & motility

stomach secretions

Hormones secreted by duodenum: - Stimulate contraction of gallbladder

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormones secreted by duodenum: - Stimulate relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormones secreted by duodenum: - Released in response to acid chyme

Secretin

Hormones secreted by duodenum:

Secretin

Hormones secreted by duodenum: Secretin - Inhibit _ & motility

stomach secretions

Hormones secreted by duodenum: Stimulate pancreas to release buffers

Secretin

Hormones secreted by duodenum: Stimulate liver to increase bile secretion

Secretin

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for disaccharides

- Maltase - Sucrase - Lactase

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for _ -- Maltase -- Sucrase -- Lactase

disaccharides

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for _ -- peptidases

small peptides

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for small peptides

peptidases

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for _ -- Nucleases

nucleic acids

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - Brush border enzymes for nucleic acids

Nucleases

Chemical digestion in small intestine - jejunum: Exocrine secretions of intestinal glands - _ to neutralize stomach acid

Buffers

Structure of the large intestine: Muscular tube _ feet long, 3 inches in diameter

~ five

Structure of the large intestine: - _ and appendix - _ – ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid regions - _ -- Anal canal

- Cecum - Colon - Rectum

Histology of the large intestine: - _ surface, - Deep intestinal glands -- Many secreting cells -- Stem cells

Smooth inner

Histology of the large intestine: Longitudinal muscles of muscularis layer reduced to _ bands of muscle, the Taenia coli

3 longitudinal

Functions of the large intestine: 1. Digestion - Bacterial activity - _ produced by the large intestine

No digestive enzymes

Functions of the large intestine: 1. Digestion - Bacterial activity - Bacteria living in large intestine breakdown various organic molecules -- Convert _ to urobilinogens and stercobilinogens

bilirubin

Functions of the large intestine: 1. Digestion - Bacterial activity - Bacteria living in large intestine breakdown various organic molecules -- Digest _ to methane ga

carbohydrates

Functions of the large intestine: 1. Digestion - Bacterial activity - Bacteria manufacture Vitamin K, biotin, and _

vitamin B5

Functions of the large intestine: 1. Digestion - Bacterial activity - Bacteria manufacture Vitamin K, biotin, and vitamin B5 -- Vitamin needed by liver to manufacture _

clotting proteins

Functions of the large intestine: 2. Absorption of _ - Movement from cecum to transverse colon takes hours

water

Functions of the large intestine: 2. Absorption - _ – K, biotin, and B5 synthesized by bacteria of large intestine

Vitamins

Functions of the large intestine: 2. Absorption - Bile salts - Organic _ -- Urobilinogens (to be excreted in urine) -- Ammonia

wastes and toxins

Functions of the large intestine: - Absorption of water and segmentation movements in ascending colon compact material into feces

3. Formation and expulsion of feces (stool)

Functions of the large intestine: 3. Formation and expulsion of feces (stool) - _ triggered by stomach distension produces mass movements of feces through colon into rectum

Peristalsis

Defecation Reflex: - Triggered by _ of rectal walls

distention

Defecation Reflex: Triggered by distention of rectal walls - Relaxation of internal anal sphincter _ controlled by ANS

unconsciously

Defecation Reflex: Triggered by distention of rectal walls - Somatic _ of relaxation of external anal sphincter

conscious control

Control of energy metabolism: _ breaks down small carbon compounds to make ATP

Mitochondria

Control of energy metabolism: Mitochondria breaks down small carbon compounds to make ATP - Which organic molecules are used depends on _ and availability of _

- hormones - nutrients

Control of energy metabolism: Absorptive period - _

insulin is secreted

Control of energy metabolism: _ - insulin is secreted - most cells use glucose for energy

Absorptive period

Control of energy metabolism: Postabsorptive period - _, glucocorticoids, epinephrine are secreted - many cells use fatty acids and amino acids for energy

Glucagon

Control of energy metabolism: _ period - Glucagon, glucocorticoids, epinephrine are secreted

Postabsorptive

Absorptive Period: _ enter the blood as intestinal absorption proceeds and insulin is secreted by beta cells of pancreas

Nutrients

Absorptive Period: Insulin-dependent cells take up _ - Liver regulates glucose content of blood by absorbing excess glucose

glucose

Absorptive Period: Liver regulates glucose content of blood by absorbing excess glucose - Uses some for energy - Stores glucose as glycogen - Converts excess glucose to _

triglycerides

Absorptive Period: Insulin-dependent cells take up _ - Muscle cells store glucose as _ - Other tissues absorb glucose to use for energy

glycogen

Absorptive Period: Neural tissue is_ and cells take up glucose for energy

insulin-independent

Absorptive Period: triglycerides degraded to fatty acids and monoglycerides by capillary lipases

Chylomicron

Absorptive Period: _ are absorbed by most cells for protein synthesis, stimulated by insulin, growth hormone, androgen, and estrogen

Amino acids

Postabsorptive period: From the end of the absorptive state to the next meal, body relies on _ for energy production in cells

reserves

Postabsorptive period: Insulin secretion _

stops

Postabsorptive period: All are secreted to control _ - Glucagon (alpha cells of pancreas), - glucocorticoids (adrenal cortex), - epinephrine (adrenal medulla)

cellular metabolism

Postabsorptive period: Neural tissue requires glucose for energy - Liver cells break down glycogen and synthesize glucose (gluconeogenesis), _ into blood

releasing glucose

Postabsorptive period: All other tissues switch to _ for energy production - No insulin so can not take in glucose - Muscle cells use fatty acids while at rest and use glycogen reserves when active

fatty acids

Postabsorptive period: Tissues can make use of _ breakdown products for energy production if _ are not available

- amino acids - fatty acids

Postabsorptive period: Tissues can make use of amino acid breakdown - Amino acids are de-aminated by the _ to produce ketone acids that can be used in mitochondria for ATP synthesis by most cell

liver

Postabsorptive period: Tissues can make use of amino acid breakdown - Liver can use amino acids for gluconeogenesis to supply glucose to _

neural tissue

EXAM #3 Flashcards

(428 cards)