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The Human Organism > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Zygote

A

A fertilized egg
46 diploid chromosomes, 23 haploid from each parent
0-5/6 days

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2
Q

Gamete

A

Sex cells/egg or sperm cells
The only haploid cells in the body are gamete cells

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3
Q

Sex of fetus is determined by…

A

The arrangement of sex hormones (XX or XY)

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4
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

Does not involve the fusion of gametes
Produce genetically identical offspring
Evolve slowly and adapt poorly

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5
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Produce offspring with reconstituted genome (re-assortment of chromosomes)
Survival advantage because they evolve quicker and adapt better, and harmful recessive mutations are masked by a normal gene
New genomes produced by crossing over of genetic material

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6
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

The allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene

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7
Q

How do hormones produce functional sex organs?

A

Peptide–moves into brain and stimulates changes in order to modulate sexual feedback and genitalia
Steroid–allows for movement in and out of BBB (communication between body and CNS restricted by hydrophobic BBB

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8
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Control of hormone secretion

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9
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Stimulated by hypothalamus
Hormone secretion by the thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads
Growth

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10
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Stimulated by hypothalamus
Water and salt balance

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11
Q

Endocrinology

A

The study of hormones

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12
Q

Neuroendocrine interactions

A

Endocrine system glands secrete chemicals/hormones into the bloodstream, travel to target tissues, produce long-lasting responses over time, influence metabolism and development, pass through BBB
Nervous system cells travel to target tissues via electrical current, produce fast responses, influence acute changes in body systems

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13
Q

Neuroendocrine cells

A

Neurons that communicate with hormones in conjunction with neurochemicals

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14
Q

Hormone chemicals

A

Produced and released from differentiated cell types to affect other cells in the body and brain
Interactions occur through blood circulation to target
Endocrine system cells release hormones that travel long distances through the bloodstream
Depending on chemical composition effects are fast (adrenaline) or slow (steroids)

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15
Q

HPG axis

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
Regulates reproductive activity and the release of ovarian hormones in animals and humans

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16
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

Menstrual phase (1-5) –> pre-ovulatory phase (1-14) –> ovulation (14th day) –> post-ovulatory phase (14 days after)
Follicular phase –> ovulation –> luteal phase

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17
Q

Hormone regulation in the HPG axis in females

A

Hypothalamus sends GnRH to anterior pituitary –> anterior pituitary produces FSH and LH –> FSH and LH rise and help to mature the primary and secondary follicles (which happens over menstruation) –> once follicles are mature, they release estrogen which goes back to the hypothalamus and tells it to stop producing FSH and LH (acting as a negative feedback inhibitor)

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18
Q

Hormone regulation in the HPG axis in males

A

Hypothalamus sends GnRH to anterior pituitary –> anterior pituitary produces LH and FSH –> LH and FSH act on the testes to produce testosterone –> testosterone goes back to the hypothalamus to inhibit GnRH

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19
Q

Cholesterol

A

Template for all steroid hormones
Can be used to create progesterone (female reproduction), estradiol (female reproduction), and testosterone (male reproduction)

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20
Q

Hormones released from the anterior pituitary gland

A

GnRH, TRH, PRH, GHRH, CRH, SRIH
Act on the pituitary gland

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21
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Releases LH and FSH (depending on frequency of stimulation); targets the reproductive system
Stimulates production of sex hormones by gonads (LH) and the production of sperm and eggs (FSH)

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22
Q

TRH

A

Thyroid-releasing hormone
Releases thyroid-stimulating hormone and stimulates prolactin secretion
Acts on thyroid gland
Regulates metabolism

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23
Q

PRH

A

Prolactin-releasing hormone
Releases prolactin
Acts on mammary glands
Promotes milk production

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24
Q

GHRH

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Releases growth hormone; acts on liver, bone, and muscle
Induces targets to produce insulin-like growth factors that stimulate body growth and a higher metabolic rate

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25
CRH
Corticotropin-releasing hormone Releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Acts on adrenal glands Induces targets to produce glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and the stress response
26
SRIH
Somatotropin release inhibiting hormone Inhibits growth hormone
27
Hormones stored by the posterior pituitary gland
ADH and oxytocin; produced by the hypothalamus
28
ADH
Antidiuretic hormone Acts on kidneys, sweat glands, and circulatory system Water balance
29
Oxytocin
Acts on female reproductive system Triggers uterine contractions during childbirth
30
HPA axis
Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis Hypothalamus sends CRH to anterior pituitary which releases ACTH --> ACTH acts on adrenal gland to produce cortisol --> cortisol provides feedback to the pituitary and hypothalamus to stop producing CRH Stress activates HPA axis (chronic stress results in negative feedback at all levels)
31
Psychopharmacology
Classification of drugs based upon general type of CNS effect produced
32
Depressants
Produce general decrease in cognitive and behavioral processes Alcohol (ETOH), marijuana, barbiturates (sedatives), benzodiazepines (tranquilizers)
33
Stimulants
Produce general increase in behavior and thought Nicotine, caffeine, amphetamine, and cocaine Act on dopamine
34
Hallucinogens and opiates
Alter perception of reality LSD and derivatives, opium Act on serotonin
35
Tolerance
More and more of the drug is required to produce desired effect–leads to addiction
36
Addiction
Physiological and psychological need for a drug
37
Withdrawal
Physical and psychological symptoms opposite from those the drug induces
38
Opponent-process theory
A drug produces changes from homeostasis (A-process), and the body tries to reduce changes by producing opposite effects (B-process) Tolerance is an increased strength of the B-process Addiction is the need for more A-process to counteract the negative B-process Withdrawal is the removal of the A-process leaving behind a strengthened B-process
39
Alcohol and marijuana
Depressant Administration–beverage/inhalant Distribution–small, intense (rapid absorption) Elimination–metabolized by the liver CNS effects–visual impairment, lack of motor coordination, increased reaction time, euphoria, and release from inhibitions
40
Sedatives/Tranquilizers
Depressant Act to decrease anxiety via global depression of the CNS, effects are supra additive
41
Barbiturates
Class of synthetic compounds, usually taken orally and distributed through the bloodstream Act as GABA agonist on GABA receptors (increases effect of GABA) Currently used as sleep aids and anticonvulsants Risks include addiction, tolerance, and insomnia upon withdrawal
42
Benzodiazepines
Tranquilizer Synthetic compound used extensively as antianxiety drugs Taken orally and distributed through the bloodstream GABA agonist Common side effects–lethargy and drowsiness Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal, also great hazard for overdose especially if mixed with alcohol
43
Cocaine
Stimulant Administration–nasally, crack (highly pure form) can be smokes Distribution–absorbed by mucosal membranes (nasal) or absorbed directly into the blood (inhaled) Elimination–metabolized by esterase enzyme in the brain CNS effects–increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature, feelings of euphoria Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal Long-term health risks–cardiovascular or cerebrovascular problems
44
Amphetamines
Stimulant Synthetic compound with chemical structure similar to catecholamines Severe abuse potential Administration–oral, nasal, IV Distribution–via bloodstream Elimination–metabolized by liver CNS effects–increase in blood pressure, motor activity, libido, and pain threshold, decreases in bronchial muscle tone, fatigue, appetite, and euphoria, high doses result in paranoia Risks include addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal
45
Ecstacy
Hallucinogen Synthetic of mescaline Dangerous and potent toxin of serotonin cells; ability to super stimulate serotonin in the brain, causing cell death Little risk of addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal
46
LSD
Hallucinogen Acts as a serotonin agonist at inhibitory autoreceptors (inhibit inhibiting neurons, get excitation) Orally as blots or sugar cubes Effects include increased heart rate and blood pressure, pupil dilation, perceptual alteration, occasionally psychotic episodes and synesthesia Tolerance does develop, but not addiction
47
Pharmacokinetics
How drugs move through the body; administration --> distribution --> elimination
48
Drug half-life
Amount of time required for removal of 50% of drug in blood
49
First order transformation
Drug clearance rate proceeds exponentially Converting enzymes > drug to transform
50
Zero order transformation
Drug clearance rate is fixed Drug to transform > converting enzymes Concentration of drug saturates metabolizing enzymes
51
Schizophrenia
Group of disorders, including 6-month period of disturbances of communication, perception, and thought processes Chlorpromazine (sedative) reduces florid symptoms
52
Schizophrenia key distinctions
Not a mood/affective disorder because people aren't perceiving something incorrectly, they're perceiving something that isn't there
53
Models of schizophrenia
Inability to segregate relevant vs. irrelevant sensory stimulation and/or memories Sensory abnormality producing "false" realities Hallucinations (auditory)
54
Florid schizophrenia symptoms
Type 1/positive Presence of distinctive behaviors (disorganized thinking, paranoia, delusions of grandeur, bizarre ideation)
55
Negative schizophrenia symptoms
Type 2 Absence of normal and social behavior (neglect of personal hygiene, odd behavior and ideas, social isolation, withdrawal, catatonia) Often precede florid symptoms
56
Rule of thirds
After onset of schizophrenia, 1/3 spontaneously recover, 1/3 spontaneous remission and relapse (controlled by medication), 1/3 chronically ill
57
Affective Illness
Person perceives reality (sensory stimuli) normally, but feeling about that reality may be distorted
58
Mania
A period of abnormally elevated, extreme changes in mood or emotions, energy level, or activity level Effectively treated by lithium Often relapses and leads to periods of depression
59
Mania symptoms
Accelerated thought process, euphoria, exaggerated sexual or physical appetite, illusions of invincibility, grandiose ambitions
60
Depression symptoms
Suicidal thoughts, anhedonia (lack of pleasure), psychomotor retardation, expressions of helplessness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, and sleep disturbances resulting in lost REM sleep
61
Unipolar illness
Periods of depression alternate with normal periods
62
Bipolar illness
Brief periods of mania oscillate with brief periods of depression and prolonged periods of normalcy Effectively managed with lithium during manic state and antidepressants during depressive state
63
SSRIs
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Raise extracellular levels of serotonin --> when serotonin is being passed between pre- and post- synaptic cells, there's excess in the synapse and whatever isn't used is discarded or reused; SSRIs stop serotonin being reused and makes sure it stays in the synapse a bit longer so serotonin's effects are amplified Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), and Paxil (paroxetine) Therapeutic effects take weeks even though biochemical effects are immediate

The Human Organism (4 decks)

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